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ANATOMY

PAIXTING.

^ELh,

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ESSAYS.

C. WHITTINGHA.M, PRINTER, DEAN STREET, FETTER LANE.

ESSAYS

ON TBE

ANATOMY OF EXPRESSION

ijf

PAINTING.

BY CHARLES BELL.

TAMEN ASPICE, SI QUID

ET NOS, QUOD CURES PKOPRIUM FECISSE, LOQUAMUR.

HOR. EPIST. XVII.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, AND ORME, PATERNOSTER-ROW.

. 1806.

ADVERTISEMENT,

When the Author of these Essays has formerly
appeared before the Public, he felt a sort of con-
fidence in the tendency and usefulness of his la-
bours ; the motives at least which induced him
to publish might plead that apology which an au-
thor so naturally wishes to establish with his readers.
And to this perhaps he has hitherto owed his ex-
emption from the severity of criticism. He has
here adventured on a subject in which to succeed
implies a thousand delicacies of taste and of compo-
sition, the want of which is little observed in works
of less splendid pretensions. But he may be allowed

to say, that even in this attempt he has still his first
great object in view, and in some measure the same
motives and hopes to support him. His wish is to
demonstrate the importance and the uses of anatomy;
to multiply the motives for the cultivation of the
science; to show how various and how interesting-
are the deductions which may be drawn from the
contemplation of the animal frame.

Engaged by his professional duties in the study of
the anatomical structure, as it directs the enquiries
and the practice of the physician and surgeon, the
Author has been accustomed also to look on the
human body in another relation, less useful it may
be admitted, but not less pleasing or interesting.

Anatomy stands related to the arts of design, as
the grammar of that language in which they address
us. The expressions, attitudes, and movements of
the human figure, are the characters of this lan-
guage ; which is adapted to convey the effect of
historical narration, as well as to show the working

Vll

of human passion, and give the most striking and
lively indications of intellectual power and energy.
The art of the painter, considered with a view to
these interesting representations, assumes a high and
dignified character. All the lesser embellishments
and minuteness of representation are, by an artist
who has those more enlarged views of his profession,
regarded as foreign to the main subject, as distract-
ing and hurtful to the grand effect, as admired only
because they have the merit of accurate imitation,
and almost appear to be what they are not. This
distinction must be felt, or we shall never see the
grand style in painting revived. The painter must not
be satisfied merely to copy and represent what he
sees; he must cultivate this talent of imitation, merely
as bestowing those facilities which are to give scope
to the exertions of his genius, as the instruments and
means only which he is to employ for communicating
his thoughts, and presenting to others the creations
of his fancy. It is by his creative powers alone that
he can become truly a painter ; and for these he is to
trust to original genius, cultivated and enriched

Vlll

by a scrutinizing observation of nature. Till he has
acquired a poet's eye for nature, and can seize with
intuitive quickness the appearances of passion, and
all the effects produced upon the body by the
operations of the mind, he has not raised himself
above the mechanism of his art, nor does he rank
with the poet or the historian.

To assist the painter in one department of this
inspiring study, is the Author's design in these
Essays. He has been desirous, in principles deduced
from the structure of man, and the comparative
anatomy of animals, to lay a foundation for studying
the influence of the mind upon the body ; and he
ventures to expect great indulgence to an attempt
at once so delicate and so difficult.

Perhaps it may be proper to make some apology
for the sketches which accompany the text. He
often found it necessary to take the aid of the pencil,
in slight marginal illustrations, in order to express
what he despaired of making intelligible by the use

of language merely ; as in speaking, for example, of
the forms of the head, or the operation of the
muscles. The slightness of these sketches, as they
appeared in the manuscript, explained sufficiently
the humble intention of the Author. But, under the
graver, they have assumed an appearance more soft
and finished, than was perhaps to be desired; and
certainly stand more in need of an apology for their
incorrectness*.

* In the sketch of Astonishment and Fear the Author thought that he was success-
ful in the expression, but they have lost much of their original character.
It would be ungrateful not to acknowledge that he is indebted for some of the
happier imitations of his drawing to Mr. Freeman's unremitting attention and
solicitude.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTORY ESSAY.
Uses of anatomy to the painter — Faults into which artists may be betrayed in

STUDYING FROM THE antique EXCLUSIVELY 3

la drawing from the academy figure i)

The proper use of the living figure to the artist 1 1

Of the anatomy as assisting the artist in drawing from the model 12

Its uses in drawing from the living figure, or in composing 14, 15

Of the expression of the anatomy in the sketch and in the finished picture 17

The ambitious display of anatomical knowledge leads to inaccuracy and caricature ... 18

ESSAY II.

Of the skull and form of the head , 25

Of the distinction of character in the different ages — Of the head of an infant 25

Of the changes produced by the growth and falling away of the teeth 27

Character of an old woman's face 29

Peculiarities of Fiamingo's heads of children , 31

Of the peculiarities of the antique or ideal head 32

Of the character of the heads of brutes — The peculiarity in the antique form of the

headconsistsin increasiagthe proportions which distinguish human physio-^nomy.. 39,40

Explanation of the plate of the skulls 49

ESSAY III.

Of the muscles or the face in man and in animals 55

Explanation of the plate of the muscles of the face 58

Explanation of the additional plate of the muscles of the face q-j

Explanation of the plate of muscles in the carnivorous animals 72

Some painters have given human expression to aaimils 74,

Explanation of the plate of the muscles of the horse's head 77

ESSAY IV*.

Pagf
Of the EXPHF.JSION of passion as illustrated IIV A COMPARISON OF THE MUSCLES IN MAN

AND IN ANIMALS — AND OF THE MUSCLES PRClLIAIt TO MAN AND THEIR EFFECTS IN

BESTOWING HUMAN EXPRESSION S4

Arrangement of the muscles of the face in brutes 89

Of the niustles of the face of man as contrasted with those of brutes 93

EHects of the muscles of expression in man and animals 96

Much of beauty of countenance is in capacity of expression. 1C2

ESSAY V.

Idea of a living principle in the expression of emotion — Of the action of the mus-
cles of the face AS EXPIIESSIVE OF PASSION 108

Of the relaxation of tlie muscles of the face in languor, fuintness, and sorrow — Of

bodily pain 113

Of anguish and of death 116

Of laughter and of weeping 125

Ofjoy and discontent 133

Of w-onder, astonishment, fear, terror, horror, despair 14-2

Of madness 153

ESSAY VI.
Of the economy of the living body as it RELATES to expression and character in

PAINTING 161

Of the veins 163

The bones and muscles 168

Power of exercise in giving form and elegance to the figure 171

Contrast of power and velocity as indicated in the human figure 174

An elevation sometimes to be sustained in the proportions and attitude of the figure, as

in the language of the poet 176

The movements of the human body divisible into those, 1. Of motion and exertion ;

2. Of sentiment and passion 177

An elegant position is a natural and easy one 180

Beauty of animals has a relation to motion, but in the human body it has also a

relation to the qualitiesof mind and the power of expression 181

Of the character of sleep and death 183

* This by au error of the press is Essay V. Essay V. is written Essay VI. aud so on.

INTRODUCTORY ESSAY.

USES OF ANATOMY TO THE PAINTER-FAULTS INTO WHICH ARTISTS MAY BE
BETRAYED IN STUDYING THE ANTIQUE; IN DRAWING FROM THE ACADEMY
FIGURE-ANATOMY AS LE.\DING TO THE CRITERION OF TRUTH OF EXPRESSION
AND OF CHARACTER.

In the expression of emotion and passion, whether by the gesture or
in the countenance, there is sufficient uniformity to be the object of
art and reasoning ; and though we cannot hope to obtain a perfect
rationale of this curious and interesting science, something certainly
may be done in settling a criterion of just and true expression.

In what I now lay before the public, I do not aim at any thing like
a complete theory of expression. It is interesting in a very high degree
to mark the traits of emotion, and compare them with the anotomical
structure ; and amidst the severer studies of anatomy, as connected
with health and disease, I have been able, without departing too far
from my professional pursuits and duties, to pass many pleasant
hours in observing and investigating the anatomy of expression.

But we are still far from possessing sufficient materials for a
theory of the science : and all that I can venture to hope, is that
some of my suggestions may prove useful to those who indulge
in these pleasing speculations; or be serviceable to artists, who,
wliile they are solicitous to attain the perfection of mechanical
practice, derive satisfaction from studying the principles of their
art.

By anatomy, considered with a view to the arts of design, I un-
derstand not merely the study of the individual and dissected mus-
cles of the face, or bod\^, or limbs ; I consider it as including a know-
ledge of all the peculiarities and characteristic differences which mark
and distinguish the countenance, and the general appearance of the
body, in situations interesting to the painter or statuary. The charac-
ters of infancy, youth, or age; the peculiaritiesofsicknessor of robust
health ; the contrast of manly and muscular strength, Avith feminine
delicacy; the appearances of diseases, of pain, or of death; the general
condition of the body ; in short, as marking to the eye of the beholder
interesting situations; — all these form as necessary a part of
the anatomy of painting as the tracing of the muscles of expression
in their unexerted state, and of the changes induced upon them as
emotions arise in the mind.

The anatomy of painting, taken according to this comprehensive
description, forms not only a science of great interest, but that from
wliich alone the artist can derive the true spirit of observation ; learn

to distinguish what is essential to just expression; and be enabled to
direct his attention to appearances which might otherwise escape his
notice, but on which much of the effect and force, and much even of
the delicacy of his delineations, will be found to depend.

Among the errors into which a young artist is most likely to be
seduced, there are two against which the study of anatomy seems well
calculated to guard him. — The one of these is, the blind and indiscri-
minate imitation of the antique ; the other, an opinion that in the
academy figure he will find a sure guide in delineating the natu-
ral and true anatomy of the living body. These are subjects on
which it may be excusable to insist somewhat at large.

If, as I fear it too often happens, an artist should make the imita-
tion of the antique the beginning and the end of his studies,
instead of adopting it as a corrective of his taste, after having laid a
sure oTound-work in the study of anatomy and a close observation
of nature, and after having attained a correct and powerful execu-
tion, he will be apt to degenerate into a tame and lifeless style; he
will be in danger of renouncing, in pursuit of ideal beauty, the truth
of expression and of character.— Nay, I cannot help suspecting that
many painters have copied after casts of the antique for years, with-
out perfectly understanding what they should imitate, Avithout even
perceiving the necessity of previously studying the nature of the sub-
ject; entering fully into the idea of the artist; and being aware of the
peculiarities of his mode of composition. Into this fault, one who is

learned in the science and anatomy of painting can never fall. But he
who has not compared the natural with the antique head, or learned
the characteristic differences, or studied the principle on which the
ancient artists composed, may be betrayed into the grossest miscon-
ceptions by too implicitly following their models. In painting a hero,
for example, on whoman ancient would have bestowed strong charac-
ter, with bold anatomy and powerfiil expression, he may follow the
ideal form of a deity, in which the Grecian artist had studiously di-
vested his model of all that could indicate natural character, or
might seem to pertain to humanity. The ancient artist, in following
the mythology of his country, and the description of her poets, studied
to bestow the character of divinity, by giving repose to the limbs with-
out any indication of muscles or veins, and by exhibiting a face full of
the mild serenity of a being superior to the passi6ns of mankind, as
shadowing out a state of existence in which the will possesses the
most perfect freedom and activity without the exertion of the bodily
frame. But those ideal forms are scarcely ever to be transferred to the
representation of the human body ; and a modern artist who indiscri-
minately follows such a model, misapplies the noblest lessons of his art.

There are also, independently of the ideal form of divinity, some
peculiarities in the nature of the ancient sculpture which ought to be
well considered by the student in modern painting.

In the infancy of their art, sculptors did not venture to give to their
ligures either animation or character; they did not even open the eye-

lids, or raise the arm from the side. A stilhiess and simplicity of com-
position is thus the characteristic of ancient sculpture ; and we are
told that Pericles, even in the best age of Grecian art, was anxious
that his artists should in all their works preserve this grave simplicity
of the early ages, as necessary to grandeur. It is observed accord-
ingly, that among the most striking marks of excellency which dis-
tinguish the Grecian artists, the first and most admirable is this noble
simplicity ; this sedate grandeur of expression ; and the prevailing
tranquillity of soul which still appears under the most terrible
agitations, and the most violent passion. Upon this chaste model
was the taste in sculpture formed, in the better ages of Greece and
Rome; and its influence has extended to modern times. Unfortu-
nately this style of composing has been perverted into an additional
authority for rejecting powerful expression and character even from
the canvass. But we must never forget the distinction between sta-
tuary and painting. The statuary indeed must often, as well as the
painter, represent what is not consistent with perfect beauty ; while
both must sometimes preserve an indefiniteness, and soften all the
harsher, though strictly natural lines of expression. Still however
there is an essential and important difference between the principle of
composition in painting and in sculpture.

In the statuaries of antiquity, we see a perpetual effort to exalt
their productions above the commonness of nature. In the expres-
sion of passion, they studied a grand and general effect, avoiding the
representation of that minuteness or sharpness of feature, and of those

convulsions and distortions which are strictly natural : and indeed
it is scarcely consistent with the character of a statue to represent the
transitory emotions of violent passion. The statuary must exercise
his genius on the more sublime and permanent emotions, as
charactered in the countenance and figure ; and much of the diffi-
culty of his art consists in preventing the calmness and repose
which ought to be preserved in the attitude and expression, fi-om ex-
tinguishing all character, and degenerating into indifference and
insensibility.

But this rigid principle does not apply to the painter; and to
transfer to painting those rules of composition which flow from the
study of ancient sculpture, threatens the loss of all that is peculiarly ex-
cellent in the art. As the painter's materials do not admit of a re-
presentation too nearly approaching to nature, a character and ex-
pression more natural and stronger than is proper to a statue is allowa-
ble. It is very true, that the painter may often be allow^ed to pre-
serve much of the same gravity of style with the statuary ; that such
compositions will possess a certain augustness ; and that some subjects
even require this, while many admit of it, provided the tone and
principle of composition will be well preserv^ed, and the painting cha-
racterised by a low and sombre colouring. In general, however, this
is neither necessary nor perhaps natural to the style of composition
in painting. A stronger expression, a closer imitation of natural
character may be adopted ; and at least it may be laid down, that
where there is bold light, and vivid colouring, there should be strong

and natural character, bold and characteristic drawing. A painting,
with high finishing and bright colouring, demands minute expres-
sion, because the same circumstances which display the natural colour-
ing, are necessarily accompanied by a minute disclosure of the
parts, and a sharpness of natural expression in the features.

Thus the painter must stud)^ as a necessary part of his profession,
the traits of human expression. The noblest aim of painting un-
questionably is to reach the mind, which can be accomplished only
by the representation of sentiment and passion ; of the emotions of
the mind, as indicated by the figure, and in the countenance. If it be
still contended that an imposing stillness and tranquillity must pervade
the representation of the higher subjects of painting, I will venture
to affirm, that it is a tranquillity which he can never reach who is not
capable of producing all the violence and agitation of passion. It is
not such repose as the artist who has despised or neglected natural
character may be able to represent, but such as he alone can conceive
and execute, who, having commenced with natural forms and ex-
pression, has not contentedhimself with the first lesson of delineating
the effects of passion with boldness, but has studied all the variety of
expression, and learned the anatomy of the face and limbs in their
most violent action. Nay, tranquillity or repose, in the strict sense
of the words, cannot be characteristically expressed by one who
could not with equal facility give energy to the features and figure,
and action to the muscles ; for in rest there must be character, and
in what this consists, can best be observed and understood by him

vho has studied the effect of action. It ought also to be recollected
that repose and agitation must ever greatly depend on contrast and
opposition. There are few great subjects in history or mythology,
in which the tranquillity and higher beauty of expression in the
main figure, whether a hero in the midst of conquest, a heathen
deity, or the Saviour, does not borrow some aid from the harsher
features, more marked character, and more passionate gesture of the
surrounding groupes.

Perhaps, I may be thought to have sufficiently pointed out
how dangerous it is, for one solicitous to excel as a painter, too
closely and indiscriminately to imitate the antique, and especially
the productions of ancient sculpture. But it is not unnatural
for the student to believe that the study of the academy figure
may ser\'e as a guard against all such danger; and afford him
a sure criterion forjudging of the anatomy of his figures.

The study of the academy figure is, undoubtedly, most essential,
but unless conducted with some regard to science, it necessarily
leads to error.

In the first place, it may be remarked, that the academy figure
can give no aid in the study of the countenance. Here the
lessons of anatomy, taken along with the descriptions of the great
poets, and the study of the works of eminent painters, afford the
only resource.

But even for the anatomy of the body and limbs, the academy
figure is very far from being an infallible guide. The display of
muscular action in the human figure is but momentary, and cannot
be retained and fixed for the imitation of the artist. The effect
produced upon the surface of the body and limbs by the action of
the muscles, the swelling and receding of the fleshy parts, and that
drawing of the sinews or tendons, which accompanies exertion, or
change of posture, cannot be observed with sufficient accuracy, unless
the artist is able to class the muscles engaged in the operation ; and
unless he have some other guide than the mere surface presents,
which may enable him to recollect the varying form.

When the academy figure first strips himself, there is a symmetry
and accordance in all the limbs ; but when he is screwed up into
a posture, there appears a constraint and want of balance. It
cannot be supposed, that, when a man has the support of ropes
to preserve him in a posture of exertion, the same action of mus-
cles can be displayed as if the limbs were supported by their OAvn
energy; and, in all academy drawings, we may perceive some-
thing wrong where the ropes are not represented along with
the figure. In natural action there always is a consent and
symmetry in every part. When a man clenches his fist in passion,
the other arm does not lie in elegant relaxation : When the face
is stern and vindictive, there is energy in the whole frame : When
a man rises fi-om his seat in impassioned gesture, there pervades
every limb and feature a certain tension and straining. This uni-

versal state of the body It is difficult to excite in those who are
accustomed to sit to painters; I see them watch my eye, and
where they see me intent, they exert the muscles. The painter,
therefore, cannot trust to the man throwing himself into a natural
posture; he must direct him, and be himself able to catch, as it
were intuitively, what is natural, and reject what is constrained.
Besides, those soldiers and mechanics who are employed as aca-
demy figures are often stiff' and unwieldy; and hard labour has im-
paired in them the natural and easy motion of the joints.

Until the artist has gained a perfect knowledge of the muscles, and
is able to represent them in action without losing the general tone of
the figure, he is apt to produce an appearance like spasm or cramj) in
the limbs from one part being in action, while the other is loose or
relaxed. For it is always to be remembered, that whether the body
be alive or dead, whether the limbs be inaction or relaxed in sleep,
a uniform character must pervade the composition. Whether the
gently undulating line of relaxed muscle be the prevailing outline;
or the parts be large and strong, and the muscles prominent, bold,
and angular; there must be perfect accordance, otherwise there
Avill be no beauty of expression.

I think, that in the sketches, and even in the finished paintings of
some artists, I have observed the effect of continuing to draw from the
model, or from the naked figure, without due attention to the
action of the muscles. I have seen paintings, where the grouping

was excellent, and the proportions exact, yet the figures stood in
attitudes when they were meant to be in action ; they were fixed
as statues, and communicated to the spectator no idea of exertion
or of motion. This sometimes proceeds, I have no doubt, from a
long continued contemplation of the antique, but more fi-equently
from drawing after the still and spiritless academy figure. The
knowledge of anatomy is necessary to correct this ; but, chiefly, a
familiar acquaintance with the classification of the muscles, and
the peculiarities and effect of their action.

The true use of the living figure is this ; — after the artist has
learnt the structure of the bones and the classification of the muscles,
he should attentively observe the play of the muscles when thrown
into action and attitudes of violent exertion ; but, chieflj^ he should
mark the action of the muscles during the striking out of the
limbs. He will soon, in such a course of observation, learn to dis-
tinguish between posture and action, and to avoid that tameness
which results from neglecting the play of the muscles. And in this
view, the painter, after having learnt to draw the figure, as it is usu-
ally termed, would do well to make the academy figure go through
the exercise of pitching the bar, or throwing or striking. He will
then find that it is chiefly in straining and pulling in a fixed pos-
ture, that there is an universal tension and equal prominence of the
muscles ; and that in unrestrained actions only a few muscles rise
strongly prominent, and are distinctly characteristic of that action.
He will not, perhaps, be able to catch the character of muscular

expression, and commit it to paper at once; but with accurate
notions of the classification of the muscles, and of the effect of each
action in caUing into exertion particular sets of them, knowing to
what point his observation should be applied, and correcting his pre-
conceived notions by the actual appearance of the limb, each suc-
ceeding exhibition of strength will accelerate his progress in the
knowledge of anatomical expression, and in correctness of de-
sign.

The true corrective for the faults we have pointed out, is to be
found in the study of anatomy. It may well be said, that ana-
tomy is the true basis of the arts of design ; and it will, infallibly,
lead to perfection those who, blessed with true genius, can combine
correctness and simplicity with the higher graces and charms of
the art. It bestows on the painter a minuteness of observation,
which he cannot otherwise attain; and, I am persuaded, that
while it will enable him to give vigour to the whole form, it will,
also, teach him to represent certain niceties of expression, which,
otherwise, are altogether beyond his reach.

Even in drawing from a particular model, the artist, who is versed in
anatomy, has a great superiority. When I have seen a person, un-
acquainted with anatomy, drawing from the naked figure or from a
statue, I have marked the difficulty which he experienced in re^
presenting the course of a swelling muscle, or the little depressions
and convexities about a joint ; and this difficulty I have traced to

his total ignorance of the course and action of the muscle, the
effect of which he was endeavouring to make out. The same
difficulty is often felt in drawing the knobbed end of a bone, or the
insertion of a tendon, which being under the integuments of the
limb are but very faintly distinguishable on the surface. These de-
licate and less definite indications of the anatomy, though easily
traced by one acquainted with the structure of the limb, appear to
the uninformed only as unmeaning variations in the outline, of the
importance of which he has no means of judging, and in the imi-
tating of which he feels the greatest difficulty, and is exposed to
continual mistakes. While the knowledge of anatomy gives to the
painter a spirit of minute observation, and leads him to mark those
little niceties which add to the beauty of the whole, it also enables
him to preserve correctness, and infuse vigour into his drawing;
to catch that diversity which nature sets before him, and to avoid
the representation of what is monstrous and deformed.

Suppose, that a young artist is about to sketch a figure or a limb,
feeble indeed will his execution be, if without knowledge he endea-
vours merely to copy what is placed before him. In thus transcrib-
ing, as it were, a language wliich he does not understand, how many
must be his errors and inaccuracies ! He sees an undulating sur-
face ; the bones and processes of the joints but faintly distinguish-
able; he neglects the peculiar swelling of the muscles, to which he
should give force, as implying motion ; he makes swellings merely ;
he is incapable of bestowing the elegant undulating outline of beauty

with force and accuracy, and of preserving at the same time the cha-
racters of motion or exertion. Drawing what he does not mider-
stand, he falls into imbecility or deviates into caricature.

But if with a knowledge of anatomy, he attempts the same
task, his acquaintance with the skeleton enables him with truth and
with facility to sketch his first outline of the figure, and to take down
its various proportions; while his knowledge of the muscles enables
him to represent forcibly the fleshy parts, simplifying and massing
where it is necessary, and at the same time preserving a minuteness
of intention.

But it is in composing much more than in copying what is ex-
hibited, that the knowledge of anatomy is truly useful. Without
such knowledge, all the original exertions of genius are repressed.
Every alteration of posture is accompanied Avith muscular exertion
and change of form, and in proportion to the painter's ignorance of
these changes, are all his designs cramped and restrained. Leonardo
da Vinci gives formall}^ as a precept, what is self-evident to an
anatomist. " In naked figures, those members must shew their
" muscles most distinctly and boldly, upon which the greatest stress
" is laid ; in comparison with which, the rest must appear ener-
" vate." — " Remember, further, to make the muscles most visible on
" that side of any member which it puts forward to action." Such
rules and precepts are rather the result of anatomical knowledge,
than useful as pointing out to one unacquainted with anatomy

1.5

the effect he is to produce. It is not by following such a precept,
that the end is to be accomplished, but by enriching the mind with
the continual contemplation of the anatomical changes, which
mark each motion ; and by forming, as the result of such study, rules
for the representation of human action. The uses of this stud}'- will
best appear from an illustration. In vigorous action, while there is
generally a tension in the whole frame, there is also, in order to
produce the particular motion, a certain class of muscles brought
into stronger action than the rest ; the delineation of which is the
true indication of the action itself. If a man be merelvpointing up-
wards, an elegant simplicit^^j^;;^ be-all that thejoam^er^n^attai^^
or should attempt ; but if, in the same posture, he is bringing down
a heavy sword to make a blow, the muscles start into strong exer-
tion; and bv representing those swelling muscles which PulLaQ^flU^
the arm arid give the sweep to the whole body, the idea of mighty
action is conveyed. Thus it is necessary, in order to compose
with truth and correctness, not only that the painter should know
the place and form of the bones and muscles, but that he should
also have an accurate conception of the classing of the muscles in
their action. --

Perhaps, I shall best impress my idea of the advantage
to be derived from this study, by contrasting two young artists
employed in drawing from a figure; the one trusting to his
untutored genius; the other assisted by the study of anatomy.
The first, after much labour, is seen copying bit by bit, and
measuring from point to point ; and the effect is an accurate out-

line. The other catches the attitude with facility, because a know-
ledge of the skeleton has enabled him to balance the trunk upon the
limbs, and to give the outline with boldness ; the turn of the limbs,
the masses of muscular flesh, and the general character of the joints,
are touched with a slight but accurate hand. If you look upon his
sketch, you will find the attitude, the character, the spirit, and life of
the original. Even in the early stage of his drawing, and whilst his
opponent is copying parts, he presents you with the foundation of
an accurate and spirited sketch ; and if the anatomical student has
the advantage in conveying the general idea in a few lines, he has
a much greater superiority in drawing the minute parts.

But this superiority which anatomy bestows, is still better ex-
emplified, if you remove the model from these two young painters,
and make them draw the figure fi-om recollection ; or if, keeping
the model before them in its original posture, you make them alter
the attitude of the figure. Suppose, for example, that we take the
fighting gladiator. Instead of a young warrior pushing on with
great energy, let their task be to represent him receiving a blow
of his antagonist, which forces down his shield upon his breast,
or brings him Avith his knee to the ground; as it is beautifully re-
presented on some medals. Can we doubt for a moment which will
excel ? The one will copy from recollection his original drawing, or
twist with great difficulty the erect limbs of the statue into a couch-
ing posture, while the other will gain by his greater fi-eedom. Retain-
ing the general air, like one who had understood what he copied, he
is aware, that a new class of muscles come into action, while those

formerly in exertion are relaxed; he knows that the bending of
the limbs increases their measurements ; he knows how to represent
the joints in their new postures ; in short, he gives energy and effect
as a compensation for slighter errors.

It is a mistake to suppose, that because in many capital pictures
the anatomy is indicated very faintly, the study of it may not be
necessary to a painter. Even that, which in the finished picture
is to be the mere indication of muscular exertion, ought to have its
foundation laid in the sketch, by a correct and strong representation
of the full action. It is very true, that the sketch is too often a mere
indication of the painter's design, intended to be worked up to all the
truth of representation as he transfers it to the canvass ; that the out-
lines of the figures are oftener mere shadowy forms undefined in the
minute parts, than studies of anatomical expression, or guides to the
painter in his subsequent labour. And perhaps it is for this reason
that there have been many painters whose sketches all admire, but
whose finished paintings fall short of public expectation. But I
venture to sav that a sketch which is without spirit, tame, monotonous,
and in which the anatomy has not been studied, is a bad foundation
for a fine painting. Even a little exaggeration of the anatomy
is not only agreeable, but highly useful in the mere sketch.
The anatomy should be strongly marked in the original design ;
and from the dead colouring to the finishing, its harshness and rug-
gedness should be gradually softened into the modesty of nature.
The character of a sketch is spirit and life; the finished painting

must have smoothness and accuracy combined. What was a harsh
outhne in the sketch, or the strong marking of a swelling muscle, or
the crossing of a vein, will in the finished composition be faintly indi-
cated, perhaps, only by a tinge of colour. But the anatomy of the
finished picture will always be the most happy, and even its deli-
cacy perhaps the greatest, where the painter has a strong and clear
conception of the course and swelling of each muscle and vein
which enters into the delineation of the action.

While artists neglect the study of anatomy as connected with
character and expression in painting, they never can attain the
" vantage ground of their profession." Perhaps, also, it is to be
feared, that while this study is confined to a few, and one or two artists
only are versed in the science, they will be apt to caricature nature.
They are learned above their rivals : it is their forte, and they are so-
licitous to display it. But were anatomy more generally studied, the
same spirit and love of originality would make those very men seek
for distinction, by combining elegance, and the other requisites of
fine painting, with truth and expression; and prevent them from
being any longer ambitious of drawing with an accuracy bordering
on deformity. • .

It is not enough however to prove that the painter should accom-
plish himself in the knowledge of anatomy. The public attention
must also be directed to its importance. For as necessity must pre-
cede invention in the origin of arts, so must general good taste pre-

cede or accompany their improvement. The mere conviction in
the mind of the painter, that anatomy is necessary to the per-
fection of his science, will seldom be sufficient to insure his applica-
tion to a very difficult and somewhat of a disgusting study. The
knowledge and opinion of the public must force him to the task, and
encourage his labour by the assurance of its merited reward.

I have therefore two objects in view, in submitting these sketches
and hints to the public; to furnish the painter, so far as I am able, with
a guide to the study I recommend; and to convince the amateur of the
necessity of this union of anatomy and painting. To many, of both
descriptions, I am afraid this work will not be agreeable. The painter
who considers his education as completed, will not be pleased to find
so arduous a branch of it still to be begun; and the amateur may
be expected to shudder at the very name and phraseology of anatomy.
But it is only while anatomy is studied improperly, that it can excite
disgust; when connected with the criticism of art, it affords very de-
lightful subjects of investigation. Even in the common intercourse of
life, as well as in the gallery, the spirit of observation which it excites
and fosters, must prove a source of very pleasing speculation. At the
gaming-house, on the exchange, in the streets, this study affords
amusement of the highest interest and gratification. In the theatre
it is the foundation of true criticism. In heroic poetry, the finest
passages are those which are descriptive of passion; and those poets
who have excelled in describing human emotion, and have been
able to convey a forcible and vivid idea, by attending to the

working of the impassioned countenance, have spoken with uniform
effect to all ages. The description of a characteristic feature or trait
of expression, often conveys a perfect idea of the whole, and, like a
skilful touch of the painter, a single stroke of the poet's pen enlivens
the picture, and interests the feelings.

ESSAY II.

OF THE SKULL AND FORM OF THE HEAD— OF THE DISTINCTION OF CHARACTER IN
DIFFERENT AGES— AND OF THE PECULIARITIES OF THE ANTIQUE OR IDEAL
HEAD— AND OF THE NATURAL CHARACTER, AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE FORM OF
THE SKULL.

1 HE painter has much to learn in observing the form of the skull.
He will often be directed in his drawing by the knowledge ac-
quired in this study ; he will learn also to mark the peculiarities in
heads of different ages; and even the distinctions of national cha-
racter, if he should be inclined to carry his studies so far.

Turning to Plate I. there is a division of the bones of the
head, which it may be useful for the painter to recollect. In
fig. 2. is presented a sketch of the scull in profile, and a distinction
may be observed between the globular part of the head or Cranium,
which contains and protects the brain; and the Face, which is

formed of small, light, and irregular bones, containing principally the
organs of the senses, and forming at the same time the basis, as it
were, of the features. On this account, the latter is particularly
worthy of our attention at present.

On attentively considering fig. 2, and 3, we may observe certain
distinguishing peculiarities which must be preserved in drawing the
head of a child, and of an adult person.

The human head differs from that of every other animal in the size
of the Cranium, compared with that of the face. The human Cra-
nium (containing the brain) is particularly large. And as the brain
is a part which nature is provident to bring at an early period to
maturity, we see in the infant's skull, (fig. 3.) that the Cranium is
of great magnitude, compared with the face. The whole head has
a very different character from that of fig. 2. which is the skull of a
grown person.

To account for some of these peculiarities, may contribute to their
being more distinctly remembered.

The bones of the Cranium, in the grown person, are strong and
unyielding ; firmly united by a juncture, called the Suture. In
the child newly born (fig. 3.) we observe that the skull consists of
distinct laminae, or plates of bone, and that they are loose and uncon-
nected. This is a provision of nature for facilitating the birth of the

child ; the bones of the head during labour, yielding and accommo-
dating themselves to the pressure.

There is in the general form of the head of an infant, and its
elongation backwards, another provision for the safety of the mother,
and the easy birth of the child.

We may observe then these

PECULIARITIES IN THE HEAD OF AN INFANT.

1. The oval elongated head.

2. The flatness of the forehead.

3. The smallnessofthe bones of the nose.

4. The smallness and shortness of the jaw bones.

5. The little depth of the jaw.

6 The smallness of the neck compared with the size of 1 fte head,
which is owing to the peculiar projection of the back part ot the head
(or Occiput.)

"■ Comparing again the two sketches, fig. 2. and 3. Plate I. we see
that in the old skull the face has increased in its proportion to the
whole head. The brow has not however increased in the same
proportion, though its form has so far changed, that there is now a
fullness and prominence towards the ridge of the eyebrows The
cause of this is explained in the view of the section of the skull, hg. 4.
where we observe, that in the forehead there is a cavity : which from

the OS frontis, or frontal bone, is called the frontal sinus, and the
growth of which occasions the protuberance or projection over the
eyes, peculiar to manhood. This protuberance is represented in
fig. 1 . and 2.

Again we observe that in the progress from infancy to youth,
the upper jaw bone (the superior maxillarj^ bone) is greatly en-
larged ; for there is now formed in it also a great cavity, called
the maxillary sinus*. By this enlargement of the upper jaw bone,
which is the centre of the bones of the face, a new character is given
to the whole countenance. The bones of the nose are raised ; and
the nose is lengthened : the cheek bone (or os malse) is also made to
project.

But further, the growth of the teeth deepen both the upper and
loM'er jaw bones; and one necessary effect of this is, to make the
angle of the jaw bone under the ear, recede more towards the back
of the head. To make room for the full sett of teeth, the jaws are also
elongated. By the growth of the teeth, and of those processes of the
jaw bone which are necessarj^ to support and fix them, the face is
deepened, or made longer; so as todifier from the chubby face of a
child : and by the lengthening of the jaw, and particularly the reced-

* The cavities in the frontal and maxillary bones are connected with the cavity of
the nose, and are supposed to have a remarkable effect in giving the sonorous manly
tones to the voice. They are very small in women, and in children.

'-'\

ino- of the angle of the lower jaw, a manly squareness is g

siven

to the

chin.

In attending to the forms of the lower jaw bone, we may observe
several peculiarities distinguishing the face in different ages.

We have to notice the comparative length, the depth, nnd parti-
cularly the angle of these three jaws.

"•-^

■■•'f-^yi««^:-:: - ■ -^ I

The cause of the smallness and roundness of a child's face is ap-
parent from the Httle projection of the point of the jaw at the chin,
and from the obtuseness of the angle behind. In the adult we ob-
serve a greater depth in the body of the jaw bone, and the teeth being
added, the base of the jaws must necessarily be more separated, and
of course the face lengthened. We see further, that as the teeth
shoot up behind, the jaw must be lengthened to accommodate them;
the chin therefore projects while the angle of the jaw recedes
backward. Lastly, when the teeth fall out, in old age, the processes
(or alveoli as they are called) which grew up with them and support-
ed them, waste away ; and there remains nothing but the narrow
base of the jaw, while the length of bone from the hinge of the jaw-
to the angle is undiminished. The" effect is perceived in the last
outline. The jaws are allowed to approach nearer to each other
at the fore part; the angle comes of course more forward and resem-
bles that of the child, but the chin projects also; the teeth and
adventitious part of the jaws being gone, the chin and nose ap-
proach, and the mouth is too small for the tongue ; the lips fall in,
and the speech is inarticulate.

-=.'•=->■»

'^1

/■'/

ta«v

!i\t

This sketch will illustrate the effect of the loss of the teeth, and
of that part of the jaw bone which supports them. We shall touch

slightly on the other peculiarities of old age which this face pre-
sents, when treating of the muscles.

The next observation, which the view of these skulls natural])^
suggests, on the subject of character, as it relates to youth or age,
is the distinguishing and necessary form of the child's head. We
obser^'e that the length of the skull in the child (fig. 3.) is from
the forehead to the back of the head. This great length, com-
pared with its depth, no doubt diminishes, as the child advances
in years; but still the largeness of the head, the projection of
the back of the head, and the flatness of the forehead, must be
attended to.

In this marginal plate I have presented a sketch of a boy's head,
and of a head by Fiammingo, who was much celebrated for his
models and sculpture of boys. We see at once that Fiammingo is
out of nature. Instead of having given to the back of the head its
due preponderance, he has accumulated the mass to the top, and pro-
portionally diminished the space from the ear backward. The eye is
too deepjet for a boy ; the sinews of whose forehead, and the bones
of whose nose areliot yet raised : and tiierelsa protuberance mark-
ed on thelower part orHieTforebead which is quite peculiar to a
more advanced age. The only character of the boy which he has
preserved is the largeness of the head compared with the face, and
the falling in of the mouth and chin.

I believe he has in this deviation from nature proceeded on the
same principle with the ancients ; presenting us with an ideal form,
instead of strictly copying nature. I do not mean to censure these
peculiarities of Fiammingo's designs, nor shall I determine how far
they are necessary or allowable. I wish merely to point them out
for observation.

We may finally perceive that the peculiar character of the face in
manhood results from the increase of the number of teeth ; the depth
of the jaws; and the formation of the cells in the upper jaw bone
and frontal bones, and particularly the former of these cells; for by
the enlaro-ing of the upper jaw bone the nose is elevated and arched,
and the cheek bones are thrown further out.

When we look upon an European head or common skull in pro-
file, we may observe that if the lines have a tendency to one direction,
the physiognomy approaches to that of a brute ; if to the opposite
direction, it presents the line of the antique head. This leads me to
believe that in the ideal form of the antique head, the great prin-
ciple of design was to magnify the proportions which mark the pe-
culiarity of the human countenance, compared with that of the lower
animals.

The better to explain what I mean, I have presented these
sketches.

]t is necessary' only to attend to the changes produced by varying
the line of the face, as drawn f'-omthe lower part of the forehead to
the teeth, or projecting processes of the jaws.

^"S^

We shall readily perceive the effect of an extraordinary projection
of the alveolar processes of the jaws and teeth — the facial line
of course falls back, and its inclination is followed by tlie projection
of the eye, and flatness of the nose and forehead. The appearance
of the head passes from that of the European, to that of the negro —
from that of the negro, to that of the brute*.

The peculiarities in the head of the negro and Calmuc are conse-
quences of the conformation of the skull. It is observed, 1st. That a
line drawn upon the processes of the upper jaw, which support the
teeth and the forehead, recedes very much. 2dly. The space from
the nose to the teeth is very deep. 3dly. The inclination of the
head is backward, which of consequence raises the face. Professor
Camper observes, that this elevation of the face is owing to the
heaviest part of the head being behind. I think it is the reverse.
The head being moveable on the pivot of the vertebrae, must be
always balanced; and if it were heavier backward, it would be in-
clined forward to relieve the muscles and balance the head. But
being heavier before, and falling naturally forward in the negro, it is
thrown backward to poise it and relieve the muscles which support
the head behind.

* It is not merely the inclination of the facial line, however, in the full extent of Pro-
fessor Camper's expression, that produces these changes ; I speak of the facial line,
merely, as serving to point out some further distinctions to be observed, for it is suf-
ficiently proved, that Camper's accurate measurement of angles will not support his
system. See Blumenbach, Decad. Col. Craniorum, p. 9.

.^4

If we make a sketch of a head with the shoulders elevated, the
head thrown back, the line of the face inclining very much back-
ward, the jaws prominent, the lips thick, the nose flat, and the space
betwixt the nose and the mouth large, Ave shall have the unequivocal
character of the negro head*.

In the brute, as the food is gathered by the mouth, the strength is
in the jaws. The brain or sensorium is smaller, the forehead
is therefore flatter, and the comparative size of the upper part of the
face is diminished. The face is diminished in depth, while the jaws
are lengthened by the projection of the mouth. The space between
the ear and the eye is greatly enlarged, to afibrd room for a larger
temporal muscle for the stronger motion of the lower jaw. In con-
sequence of this the socket of the eye is projected forward, and in
order to give prominence to the eye, the nose is flattened. The
prominence of the eye gives a larger sphere of vision.

To give to the human head the air of the antique, the reverse of

* " The sloping contracted forehead, small eyes, depressed nose, thick lips, and
projecting jaw with which the African is usually delineated, are by no means con-
stant traits." Among those of them whom either curiosity or commerce had attracted
to the settlement of Sierra Leone, " I saw a youth (says Winterbottom) whose features
were exactly of the Grecian mould, and whose person niigiit have afforded to the
statuary a model of the Apollo Belvidere." See Winterbottom's interesting account
of Sierra Leone. This variety amongst the Africans must be admitted ; it is merely
allowing wliat Buflbn has expressed, that they have their Circassians and their
Tartars ; but it is sufficient to pass through the streets of London to be convinced of
the generally prevailing character.

these proportions must be observed. Tlie line A. B. fig. 2. being
brought to the perpendicular, the eyes are thrown backward, and
the space from the eye to the out line of the eyebrow and forehead
deepened. Accordingly we find that the most striking peculiarity
of the antique head is the deepness of the eye, and the perpendicular
line of the forehead and nose. We cannot fail to observe that the
deepness of the eye in the ideal head has not the same effect which
it would have in natural physiognomy. The reason is, that in rela-
tion to the face in general and the cheek bone, the eye is not
sunk, but only in relation to the greater elevation given to the
frontal and nasal bones. From not attending to this, Wiakelman,
with all his enthusiasm, cannot reconcile this peculiarity of the
antique to his idea of beaut3^ He supposes the artist to have in this
studied the effect of light only. ' II est vrai que des veux enfonces
ne sont pas une propriete de la beaute, et ne donnent pas un air
oiivert a la physiognomic, mais, dans les grandes figures placees a une
certaine distance de la vue, les yeux auroient peu d' effet sans cet
enfoncement, &c.' Winkelman, 458.

Again, the peculiar roundness of the chin, and lower part of the
face, is the effect of the shortening of the jaw, which is made more
remarkable by adding in fleshiness to those muscles which move the
lips, are the organs of speech, and serve to express the passions. The
fleshiness of the chin and lips is remarkable in Grecian heads.

//^^^''

I compare here the skull as seen in front with ±he general form
of the antique head. We shall find that they disagree in many
points.

We observe a great breadth in the forehead of the antique, more
than is natural to the skull. The orbits are large, and the angles
formed by the cheek bones of the common skull would be cut off,
w^ere we to apply the oval of the antique face to the naked bones;
the angles of the jaw would likewise be cut off. In the first figure
the lower part of the face tapers into an oval, because of the smallness
of the jaw bones.

To brutify a human countenance we have only to diminish the
forehead, bring the eye nearer, lengthen the jaws, shorten the nose,
and depress the mouth. If this be done, no expression of individual
features will give elevation to the character. A breadth and square-
ness in the lower part of the face is quite consistent in a vulgar head,
with a certain representation of strength and manliness, but if the
eyes be diminished, and the space between them contracted, the
expanse of the human countenance is lost, and there can remain no
dignity of expression.

The largeness of the orbit, with a full . eye, is not only a great
beauty in itself, as a feature of expression, but it necessarily takes off
from the prominence of the cheek bone, and gives the oval cast to
the face* ; and the prominence of the cheek bones, which we regard
as a deformity, produces a disagreeable effect, not from the jutting
out of the bones merely, but from its being accompanied in general
by nearness and smallness of the eyes.

The peculiarities of national character, and of the antique. Pro-

* I believe the expressions, " The awful goddess ample-eyed" — or, " With eyes
full-orbed, the spouse of Jove," are allowed by the commentator on Homer to bejust
translation. They observe, " magni autem in muliere latique oculi ac multum
licantes pulcherrimum Grecis maxima atque Hebrseis habebantur." In the Jupiter,.
Juno, and Apollo, the eye is by the artists of antiquity made large, open, and round.
Winkclinan says, they are so also in statues of Pallas ; but the eye-lid is lower, which
conveys a modest and virgin air. In Venus, on the contrary, the eyes are smaller,,
and less majestic, and have a certain languor, from the breadth given to the lower-
eye-lid.

fessor Camper has attempted to distinguish and ascertain by the
measurement and inclination of the facial line. But he has not been
successful in his attempt. It is possible, m contradiction to the lead-
ing principles of his theory, that a face or a skull may have the due
prominence of the orbit, and the sockets of the teeth in such a
relation to each other, that the facial line shall be perpendicular,
and yet the head, instead of resembling the antique statue, be
evidently deformed and ugly*.

Blumenbachf is the great antagonist of Camper's oj)inions
respecting the facial line as a test of national character. This author
rejects the method of lines as a fit distinction of national character,
and of the peculiar physiognomy of individuals; for those very dis-
proportions in measurement, which, according, to the supporters of
Camper's theory, distinguish national character, are found in the
skulls of individuals of the same nation. Rejecting therefore the

* See Professor Camper on the connection between the science of anatomy, and the
arts of drawing and painting, &c. In this work are pointed out many peculiarities
in the skulls of animals, and in the human skull in different nations. And although
Camper he wrong in his theory of the facial line, his remarks and sketches must be
very useful to the historical painter when he has to represent national character.
His book was published in the Dutch language, and for an English translation of it
we arc indebted to Dr. Cogan.

+ It is not easy for those who sliudder to look upon a skeleton to conceive the very
different traces of thought and association which arise in the mind of the anatomist
from the contemplation of the same subject. Biumeni)ach (Dec. Collect. Craniorum)
speaks with as much feeling and enthusiasm of his skull of the Georgian girl, taken
by the Russians in the war with the Turks, as Winkelman does of the winged genius
of the villa Borghese.

method of D'Aubenton, A. Durer, and Camper, he substitutes
a more minute survey of the skull in general, and particularly of the
frontal bone and maxillary bones. He cannot be wrong in this ; for,
in fact, the frontal bone, and the jaw bones, either produce, or are
themselves affected by, every possible variety or change in the cra-
nium or face. The frontal bone, no doubt, as it forms a great part of
the cranium, indicates the globular form of the cranium ; the eleva-
tion of the vertex; the narrowness betwixt the temples: and as it
forms so distinguishing a part of the face, it must indicate the form of
the forehead, and the arch of the orbit. Again, the upper jaw-bone
infallibly gives the breadth of the nostrils, the projection of the cheek-
bones, the form of the nose, and the breadth or flatness of the face.
But notwithstanding all this, the foundation of Blumenbach's ob-
servation is deficient in simplicity. He wants a leading principle to
make his theory extensively useful. His general result is, that there
is not sufficient distinction in the skulls of different nations to lead us
to refer them to different origins, and that they differ in no more
remarkable degree from each other, than we see individuals of the
same species of domestic animals differ.

As I have already hinted, I would refer the peculiarity of the
beautiful and impressive form of the antique head to this principle,
that the ancient artists sedulously avoided whatever was deemed
characteristic of the brute, and magnified those dimensions of
the human countenance which maik the distinguishing attributes
of man.

The principle of composition among the ancients is worthy
of our study. Painting was with them more of a science ; with the
moderns it is more of an art. The former always sought to discover
among those sympathies and associations which often influence our
judgment so unconsciously as to appear even like prejudices, some
leading principle of composition : they soon left mere imitation,
and advanced to a higher study, that of ideal form, in which they
endeavoured to combine excellencies, and to avoid whatever might
tend to injure the design or to impair its effect. And in this pur-
suit they seem to have studied with peculiar care the forms and ex-
pression of animals as contrasted with those of mankind.

We trace this method of study in many pieces of antiquity,
where the artist has endeavoured to convey the character of dignity,
or bodily strength, or courage, by transfusing into his composition
some of the peculiar forms of animals, as in the personification
of gods and heroes*.

* Pour pexl qu'on examine la configuration du roi des dieux, on decouvre dans les
tttes toute la forme du lion, le roi des animaux ; non seulement a les grands yeux
ronds, a son front haut et imposant, et a son nez, mais encore a sa chevelure, qui
descend du haut de la tete, puis remonte du c6t6 du front et se partage en retom-
bant en arc : ce qui n'est pas le caractere de la chevelure de rhomme, mais celui de
lacriniere du lion. Quant a Hercule, les proportions de sa tete au cou nous oftVent
la form d'un taureau indomptable. Pour indiquer dans ce heros une vigucur et une
puissance supdrieures aux forces humaines, ou lui a donn6 la t6te et le cou de cet
animal ; parties tout autrement proportionndes que dans rhomme, qui a la tete plus
grosse et le cou plus mince." Ouvres de VVinkelmann, p. 367 — 368.

We may trace it also in ancient masks, satyrs, fawns, and
centaurs ; and I have placed at the end of this chapter a drawing
from an antique mas-k, which may sene in some degree as an
illustration of this. In this composition it was the artist's design to
brutify the countenance, and accordingly we see all the pro-
portions and expression, which we are accustomed to admire in the
outline of the antique head,, reversed. This peculiarly ludicrous
effect is produced by the union of brutal physiognomy with human
expression. The flatness, breadth, and depression of the nose,
the direct exposure of the nostrils, and the prominence of the eyes,
characterize the brute ; but in the form of the mouth and the lines
of the eyebrows there is wild laughter.

The frequent representation of fawns, satyrs, centaurs, and masks*,
necessarily forced the artists of antiquity to study the peculiarities

* We sometimes see ex'iibited in paintings of fawns and sylvan boys, by modern
anists, such sober, wise, and reflecting human countenances, that they give no repre-
sentation whatever of those festive deities. At the bottom of the staircase of the
Royal Academy, the painter may observe in the configuration of the nostrils of the
two centaurs, the moveable membranous nose of the horse. In these monstrous com-
binations, while the parts are joined, they must be composed into a whole; and in
reconciling the mind to the representation of these discordant parts lies the great
merit of the composition.

faber imus et ungues

Exprimet, ct molles iniitabitur ane capillos

Infelix operis suuima, quia ponere totuoi

Nesciet.

of brutes, and to engraft them on the human form. What then
was more natural or obvious, while observing the effect of these
forms and expressions transferred to the human countenance, than
the persuasion that this character should be sedulously avoided, and
the proportions which mark it reversed, in order to convey the
dimified and characteristic form of man?

The ancient artists, in representing the sylvan deities, centaurs,
fawns, or satyrs, did not merely give them hair and cloven feet, but
bestowed on them a certain combination of character, very difficult
in execution, but which alone can reconcile us to the palpable
absurdity; a coltish wildness in gesture; a goatish expression
of countenance or festive hilarity, with features in which there
is more of common nature than of" dignity, and which are in some
conformity with the hair and the hoof; a body and limbs muscular
and powerful i a skin browned, and of a high colour, such as
the savage wildness of their life may be supposed to produce.

Modern artists hazard their reputation, when they are employed in
bestowing the line of beauty on a face or limb, by giving any
particular curve or gradation of outline ; and they appear co me
equally to depart from all the modes and habits of composition of the
ancients, and to lose all chance of imitating the antique with success.
We see the artists of antiquity combining acknowledged excellencies,
but not following a vague and evanescent form of beauty. They

seem to have always endeavoured to imitate some acknowledged
beautiful forms of age or sex. First, to have combined the beautiful
forms ofindividuals of the same sex and age, and then to have com-
bined the beauty and character of different ages: thus, in the Apollo,
there is united manly dignitj'^ in the proportions and attitude with
youthful beauty in the simplicity of the contour ; nay, thev even
ventured to combine the beauties of both sexes, for example, in the
young Bacchus, or more decidedly in the hermaphrodite. The
highest effort of art was to represent man deified, purified from the
grosser character of nature. Of these species of ideal representation
are all the sculptures of the deities. Surely the artists in all this were
not trusting to their own ideas of beauty, nor considering it as an
abstract quality. As in the antique, therefore, each variety had its
character established in nature, and resulting from an imitation of
particular beauties, it must be impossible to imitate their works, or
even to appreciate their high degree of merit, until w^e are awakened
to natural beauty of sex, age, character, and expression. It really
appears to me, that those who affect to be enthusiasts in the antique,
either mistake the nature and foundation of their sentiments, or have
no real feeling of the beauty of form, when they affect to despise
natural beauty ; for to be susceptible of the beautiful forms of
nature is the first step to the admiration of the antique.

Sir Joshua Reynolds has given a very ingenious view of the theory of
beauty; that beauty is the medium or centre of the various forms of "the

individual ; that every species of animal has a fixed and determinate
form, towards which nature is continually inclining, like various lines
terminating in a centre, or like pendulums vibrating in different
directions over one central point, and as they all cross the centre,
though only one passes through any other point, so it will be found
that jjerfect beauty is oftener produced than any one kind of
deformity.

But how shall we reconcile this with the form of the antique ?
Though this theory may account for the straight line of the ridge of
the nose being more beautiful than that Avhich is concave or convex,
because it is the central form, it will not explain the peculiarity of
the form of the nose, brow, and eye of the antique. The minute
fonn of the individual features may be made beautiful upon this
principle, but the peculiar form of the whole remains still to be
understood ; and thus there is suggested a higher object of study,
than what is to be found in the mere comparison of individual
beauties.

I have endeavoured to place the subject in another view, and to
shew that the noble and imposing form of the antique resulted from
a deep and more extensive survey of nature. I conceive the artists
of antiquity to have studied the deformities, as well as the beauties,
of the human countenance; and observing the prevailing lines of a
low and disagreeable countenance, to have traced this effect to

an association with a lower species, and hence to have deduced
their principle of ennobling the form of the head, by increasing those
peculiarities of character, the indication of intellect, and the powers
of expression, which distinguish the human form, and by carefully
reversing those proportions which produce a resemblance to the
physiognomy of brutes. While we seek to discover the superiority
of the antique form in the direction of the lines, the elevation of the
facial line, or even in the proportions of the several parts, without
examining the cause of our ready acquiescence in that as beautiful,
wliich yet is not natural, or m ithout tracing the association which
affects our judgment, the result of the inquiry must be vague and
unsatisfactory, while the principle which influenced the ancients
is not established. It is evident, that the line of the antique
face can not be the medium, or central, line of" the beautiful in
nature. And it is scarcely probable, that the line of the nose and
forehead of the antique should be the prevailing line in a natural
head, or that it should even have resulted from a selection of natural
beauties of individual form.

No man has bestowed more labour on the measurement of skulls,
and their comparison with the antique, than Professor Camper, and
in conclusion he says, " If it be now asked what is meant by
a fine countenance, we may answer, that in which the facial line
makes an angle of 100 degrees with the horizon. The ancient
Greeks have consequently chosen this angle." There is no satisfac-

toiy conclusion in saying, that a head is beautiful, because it is
four noses in length ; or a face, because the eyes are in the middle
of the head*; or that the figure is elegant, because it is seven
or eight heads in height ! for the question still remains, why do these
proportions produce a beautiful head ?

Professor Camper betrays a still more remarkable degi-ee of neg-
ligence, in tracing the origin of our ideas of beauty, when he says, we
are pleased with a child without acknowledging it to be beautiful ;
and that the form of a child, abstracted fi-om its playful vivacity, its
perfect simplicity, or affectionate attachment, has nothing pleasing in
it. For these very reasons I hold a child to be the most pleasing,
and being the most pleasing, the most beautiful object in the world.
The natural form of a child is the only species of beauty so perfect
in character and expression, that it cannot be excelled by art, nor
receive addition by the adoption of an ideal form.

In concluding my remarks on the form of the head, I may venture
to affirm, that there cannot, in this part of his study, be a more im-

* " The head of the Apollo, or Venus, or Laocoon, is universally allowed to be finer
or more beautiful than the heads of our best proportioned men and women. Whence
does this proceed? Perhaps it is because in antiques the eyes are placed exactly in the
centre of the head, which is never the case with us." Again, •' The proportions given
by the ancients to their figure are not beautiful in our eyes merely from a weak
prepossession in favour of all that is handed down to us, but because they have
corrected the defects which arise from the laws of vision."

portant subject for the observation of the artist, than the form of
the frontal bone. Much of the character of the whole head will be
found to depend on the contour of the forehead, the ridges of the
temples, the prominences formed by the cavities in this bone, and,
lastly, the arch of the orbit.

For example, we often see a painting in which the whole figure
and the general design of the picture is subservient to the display
of the light playing on the temple of an old man. Some painters, in
these profiles of old heads, are satisfied with the effect of light
merely on the furrowed brow and on the rough hair ; but how
much more beautiful is the picture, when the anatomy is displayed,
the thinness of a care-worn face, the ridge of the frontal ]:)one
highly illuminated, the veins in their course over the temple,
the delicate transparent colours of the skin, the shade of floating
grey hairs ! — So much character will often be produced by the
simplest touch presenting the true anatomy.

Instead of mechanical rules for drawing the face, I would re-
commend to the young painter to have the skull much in his
hands, to observe the bearing of certain points, the ridge of
the orbit, the prominence of the cheek bone, the angle of the jaw,
as he turns it, and to draw from it in every possible variety of
position ; by these means he will lay a foundation for most

accurate drawing and foreshortening, •whUe he will acquire a turn
for obser\'ation on the human countenance which he cannot othcr-
wi^e attain.

j^^

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EXPLANATION

PLATE I.

OF THE ETCHINGS OF THE SKULLS.

After these observations on the form of the Skulls here presented,
I shall shortly point out the most remarkable bones and processes as
they regard our present enquiry.

Fi''. 1. The Skull of a Man fully grown, presented in a front

view

A. The Frontal Bone (os frontis).

B. The Protuberances formed by the Frontal Sinuses,

(see the section of these cavities in fig. 4).
c. The Temporal Ridge of the Frontal Bone; on which
the form of the temple depends.

D. The Cheek Bone (or os malae).
E. E. The Upper Maxillary Bones.

F. The Nasal Bones.
G. G. The Orbits or Sockets for the Eye Balls. The circle
of their margin is seen to be formed of the fi'ontal bones,
the cheek bones, and the superior maxillary bones.
H. H. The Temporal Bones. These hollows are filled with a
strong fleshy muscle, which arising upon the side of the
skull, passes down through the arch to be inserted into
the lower jaw bone.
I. I. The Mastoid or Mamillary Processes of the Tempo-
ral Bone. These are the points into which the strong
mastoid muscles which give form to the neck are inserted.
K. The Lower Jaw.
l. The Angle of the Lower Jaw.

M. The Processes of the Jaws which form the sockets for
receiving the roots of the teeth.

Fig. 2. Is the Skull of an Adult seen in Profile, in which we have
to remark these parts :

a. The Frontal Bone.
B. The Temporal Bone.

c. The Zygomatic Process of the Temporal Bone, which,
with the process of the cheek bone, forms an arch, under
which the tendon of the temporal muscle passes to be
inserted into the lower jaw.

D. The Hole, or Foramen of the Ear; a little below this

is the mastoid process of the temporal bone.

E. The Parietal Bone, so called because it forms the greater

part, as it were the wall of the skull.

F. The Occipital Bone.

These bones are united by sutures, in which the processes of the
bone as they grow, seem to run out, and indent into the opposite
bone without there being an absolute union of the whole cranium,
That which unites the frontal bone, and parietal bones, is called
the coronal suture ; that which we see here uniting the parietal bone,
and temporal bone, is called the squamous or temporal suture.
That line which is betwixt the occipital and parietal bones is the
lambdoidal suture ; lastly, the union of the parietal bones is called
the sagittal suture, because it is laid betwixt the lambdoid and
coronal sutures, like the arrow betwixt the bow and the string.

There are many lesser sutures which unite the smaller bones of
the face, but they need not be mentioned here.

G. The Cheek Bone (os malse).

H. The Upper Jaw Bone (or os maxillare).
I. The Bones of the Nose (ossa nasi).
K. The Lower Jaw (inferior maxilla).
L. The Angle of the Jaw.

M. The Process of the Jaw which moves in the socket in
the Temporal Bone.

N. The CoRONoiD Process of the Jaw into which the tem-
poral muscle is fixed to move the jaw in conjunction
with other muscles.

Fig. 3. Represents the Skull of a Cliild at Birth, in which the
sutures are not yet formed, the bones of the cranium being loose, and
attached by their membranes only. While spaces may be observed,
left unprotected from the imperfect ossification of the bones.

The individual parts require no references; they will be sufficiently
understood from their correspondence with fig. 2.

Fig. 4. Is a Section of the Cranium, in which the only thing meant
to be particularly remarked, is the cavity which is to be observed in
the frontal bone, viz. The frontal sinuses.

ESSAY III.

OF THE lilUSCLES OF THE FACE IN IVIAN AND IN ANIMALS.

If we except the two muscles Avliich move the lower jaw, all the
others which are seen in the 2d and 3d plate are cutaneous
muscles; that is to say, their fixed extremity fiom which they
operate, or what is called their origin, is in general attached to some
point of bone; their insertion, or the point upon which they operate
Ls in the elastic and moveable integuments of the face. These
muscles moving the features, it is difficult to demonstrate perfectly in
every respect, because there are many of them which, unlike the
fleshy muscles of the limbs, are very delicate fibres interwoven with
the fat and cellular membrane. As the form of the bones of
the head shows that nature has been provident of a superiority in
that organ, on which the intellect and superior intelligence of man

depend, so in the muscles of the face there is a superiority of
expression in the human countenance. This superiority we shall pre-
sently see in part to depend on the action of muscles peculiar to man,
and the sole destination of which seems to be limited to this greater
aptitude for expression. It partly is attributable also to that perfec-
tion of muscular structure and action, which is necessary to the
motion of the lips and cheeks in the modulation of the voice.

EXPLANATION

PLATE II.

This plate represents the muscles of the face as they appear in a
front view, after a careful dissection, in which the skin and fat are
taken off.

A. A. The Frontal Muscle. This is an expanded web of mus-
cular fibres, which covers all the forehead.

It is, in truth, only a part of a muscle which has two bellies or
muscular portions, one on the occiput or back of the head, the
other on the forehead, with an intermediate tendon, and is therefore
called the Occipito-Frontalis Muscle.

The Occipito-Frontalis Muscle arises with a fleshy web of
fibres (similar to those which cover the forehead) from the back

part of the head * or occipital bone, then changing into a sheet of
very delicate tendon, it covers all the head, but on the brow it again
becomes muscular. This frontal portion of the muscle is inserted
into the skin, under the eyebrows -f, while some of the fibres make
a turn downward, and are fixed into the process of the frontal bone
in the inner angle of the eye, and another slip passes down upon
the nose (the nasal slip.)

B. B. The CoRRUGATOR SupERCiLii, or a transverse slip of muscle
which knits the eyebrows. Upon its inner extremity it is
fixed upon the frontal bone, while the other is attached to the
skin under the eyebrow.

c. c. The Circular Muscle or the Eyelids, (Orbicularis Pal-
pebrarum.) It consists of circular fibres, somewhat irregular on
the outer margin, which by their action close the eye. There
is a little tendon in the inner angle of the eye, which may be

* The upper transverse ridge of the occipital bone, and all the length betwixt
the mastoid processes of the temporal bones.

t Independently of its action, the mere fleshiness of this muscle gives character.
Many of the antique heads of a mature age can have little expression but what is con-
veyed by the eye and eyebrows, the beard covering the lower part of the face. The
brow of Hercules wants the elevation and form of intelligence ; but there will be
observed a fleshy fullness on the brow and around the eyes. This conveys an idea of
dull brutal strength, with a gloomy lowering expression, which accords with the
description of the poet, Iliad E. v. 550 — 560.

Lenthn

lUluM by /■«mm„Kyt.:\run^'l°' 'i'^"^'

considered as the fixed point for this muscle, both origin and
insertion. Some anatomists describe it as two semi-circular
muscles.

The effect of its violent action on the eyelids is seen in the mar-
ginal plates illustrative of the expression in Laughter and Weeping.

OF THE ACTION OF THESE THREE MUSCLES.

We see schoolboys moving their hats from their heads by the
motion of their scalp, which is by the alternate action of the occipital
and frontal portion of the Occipito-Frontalis muscle. The
portion on the back of the head is the fixed point. What anatomists
call a biventer, or two bellied muscle, is a muscle having two dis-
tinct muscular bellies, but which act in unison ; but these two por-
tions of this muscle are antagonists to each other. When the
frontal portion contracts, the eyebrows are raised and arched, and
the transverse furrows are strong across the forehead, Avhile the skin
of the forehead is raised, the hairj^ scalp is pulled down, t'le frontal
portion being in action, and the occipital portion yielding or relax-
ing; but when the frontal portion ceases to act, the forehead is
smoothed, and while the posterior or occipital portion draws back
the moveable scalp, or integuments of the head, in some degree the
action of the circular fibres of the eyelids brings down the eyebroAvs.

When the brow is furrowed with wrinkles across, by the action of
the frontal portion of the last muscle, it is smoothed by the action of
the occipital portion in part, but chiefly by the coiTugator supercilii,
the nasal portion of the occipito-frontalis muscle, and the upper por-
tion of the orbicular muscle of the eyelids.

When the eyebrows are contracted (as in the marginal plates of
Rage and Weeping,) it is by the action of the Corrugator Super-
cilii and the descending slip of the occipito-frontalis. Generall}^
in violent contraction of the eyebrows, the orbicular muscle of the
eyelids is also in action, as in marginal plate 14.

In the common motion of shutting the eye in a gentle degree, as
during sleep, it is the upper eyelid only which moves. When it is
opened, it is by the action of the muscle \a hich comes from the bottom
of the orbit, and is inserted into the margin of the uj^per eyelid.
The lower eyelid has no muscle which opens it. When the eye is
shut with great force, as in laughing and crying, (see marginal plates
in the next section,) it is chiefly by the outer and more straggling
circle of fibres; during this action the frontal muscle is in relaxation.
By this action of the orbicular muscle of the eyelids, the ejxball is
pressed into the socket, and the tears pressed out so as to flow over
the cheeks*.

* The gland which secretes the tears is seated above, and a little to the outside of
the eyeball, the ducts of this gland open under the eyelids, and by the motion of

In a smooth unruffled countenance these four muscles are poised,
and counteract each other. When there is a degree of paralysis in the
nerves which supply either of them, the opposing muscle acquires a
preponderance, and distorts the features, and often from this cause
we shall see the eyebrow fallen down.

In drunkenness, which often produces a temporary paralysis, the
eyebrows are sometimes unequally elevated. We shall find in
Hogarth's print of A Midnight Modern Conversation, Gin-lane, and
several others, that this unequal elevation of the eyebrows produces
much of the character of the drunken countenance. It is an unusual
exertion of the frontal muscle to counteract the heaviness of the
eyelids, which produces the elevation of the eyebrows. The same
effect is perceived in the last plate of the next section on expression.

II.

D. ]Marks a set of fibres which arise from that part of the upper jaw
bones which supports the nasal bones*, and which descend to
be attached to the nostrils and to the upper lip. In its action it
raises the upper lip and the nostril ; it is called, therefore.
Levator Labii superioris Al^eque Nasi.

the eyelids the fluid is spread over the eye. When the eye is closed there is still a
channel left betwixt the margin of the eyelids, by which the tears run to the j)oints
of two little ducts near the inner angle of the eye, by which they are absorbed, and
carried into the nose.

* By a little double tendon from the nasal process of the upper jaw bone

E. A set of fibres which compress the nostril, called Compressor

Naris.

F. The muscle which, raising the upper lip, is called Levator

Labii Superioris Proprius. It arises from the upper jaw
bone near the orbit, and is attached to the upper lip ex-
clusivel}^

G. The Levator Anguli Oris, This muscle, lying under the

Levator Labii Superioris, is shorter of course, and runs into
the meeting of the lips; it raises the angle of the Mouth

directly.
H. The Zygomatic Muscle, so called from its origin in the
Zygomatic process of the cheek bone*. It passes down to the
angle of the mouth.

There is sometimes a Zygomaticus Minor : it is as an additional
slip to the last muscle.

We may observe here, that these five last muscles, (excepting the
Constrictor Nasi) are those which raise the mouth, make the cheek
full, and are expressive of cheerfulness. We^ee from the connec-
tion of these with the nostril, that it must move together with the
lip. The depressing muscle m is particularly strong. Often it is
seen distinctly in the living face, and is the antagonist of these so far
as regards the motion of the angle of the mouth.

* The Zygoma is the arch formed by the process of the cheek and temporal bone.
Seep. I. fig. 2. c.

K. The Orbicularis Muscle of the lips, bemg a series of circular
fibres, which forms much of the fleshy substance of the lips. It
closes the mouth, and is in direct opposition to the others, for all
the levators and depressors of the lips are opponents and anta-
gonists to these circular fibres.

L. The Depressor AljE Nasi,

M. Nasalis Labii Superioris.

N. The Triangularis Oris, or Depressor Labiorum, which
is a strong triangular muscle arising from the base of the jaw
and inserted into the angle of the mouth; it is called Tri-
angularis Oris from its shape.

o. The Depressor of the Lower Lip. This muscle forms the
prominence of the chin, and being of a square form, is some-
times called QuADRATUs Menti.

p. The Levatores Menti. These are small but strong muscles,
which arising from the lower jaw near the root of the teeth,
descend, and are fixed into the chin, so that by their action
they throw up the lower lip with a contemptuous expression.

We see that the muscles have in general a tendency to the two
most moveable parts of the face, either to the eyebrows (and particu-
larly their inner extremity) or to the angle of the mouth; evidently

indicating that these are the parts on which the expression chiefly
depends. We see that in these muscles in the lower part of the face
there is an equipoise produced, first fi-om muscles of either side acting
with equal powers, and from both these again being counteracted
by the circular fibres of the lips.

Q. The Buccinator, is a muscle named from its effect in blo^^^ng
the trumpet. It is attached to the upright part of the lower
jaw, and to the alveolar processes of both jaws, and passes
forward to the angle of the mouth. It draws the angle of the
mouth directly backward, and contracts the cheeks when they
are distended with air.

The union of all these muscles in the angle of the mouth causes
the fleshy prominence so peculiar to those who have a thin face;
but Avhen the cheek is full, the action of these muscles upon this
point, produces the dimpled cheek. We see lying on the
Buccinator (q.) a small quantity of fat, Avhich fills up the deep
space in the cheek. When in sickness this fat is reduced, the cheek
*falls hollow, and the strong muscles, g. m. q. are prominent. (See
the marginal plate of the character of Death.) The wasting of the
grinding teeth has also an effect in hollowing the cheek.

B. The thin web of muscular fibres, which covers the side of the neck,
and which rises over the jaw, and expands upon the face, is
called by anatomists the Platysma Myoides. The painter

will have frequent occasion to attend to its action. The
part which we see here passing forward to the angle of the
mouth, has been called Risorius, from its effect in laughing;
but the effect of this muscle, in giving a stringy appearance
to the skin of the neck, is particularly w^orthy ot notice;
as in rage, despair, and all the violent actions of the muscles
of the neck and jaw. (See the marginal plate of Horror.)

A strong muscle arises from the cheek bone, and the arched pro-
cess of the temporal bone, and is inserted into the lower jaw near its
angle. It is called the Masseter muscle ; it closes the teeth with
great strength, and, in rage, with gnashing of the teeth, it swells up
very strongly. The swelling of this muscle under the fibres r. only
is perceived.

R. The Temporal Muscle, being that which arises very broad upon
the side of the head, and passing down under the Zygoma,
JuGUM, or arch of the temporal and cheek bones, is inserted
into the lower jaw, and moves it with great strength in conjunc-
tion with the Masseter muscle. These two last muscles
simply close the jaws ; but there are others concealed in the
base of the skull (the Pterygoid Muscles), w^hich being
oblique in their direction, cause the lateral or grinding motion.

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EXPLANATION

PLATE III.

This is to be considered as an additional plan and outline, in which
some deep muscles are presented, which cannot be seen in
Plate 11.

A. Levator Labii Superioris Al^que Nasi.

B. Constrictor Nasi.

c. Levator Anguli Oris.

D. This is a little muscle, which was but imperfectly seen in the
former view; viz. Depressor Al^ Nasi: it is the direct oppo-
nent of A. : it pulls down the nostril, and produces a particular
effect in swelling the lip at this part.

E. Marks a slip of fibres belonging to the Orbicularis Oris,

which runs up towards the nose. It pulls down the nose some-
what. It is called Nasalis Labii Superioris.

The muscles a. b. c. d. e. give the variety of motion to the nostril.
How much the nostril is expressive of emotion is known from vulgar
expression, as well as from the Poets*.

F. Triangularis Oris.

G. Buccinator.
H. Masseter.

I. Levator Menti. This muscle has a very curious effect in
raising the lower lip. It is the proper raiser of the lower lip. Ele-
vator Labii Inferioris Proprius ; because, raising the firm
integuments of the chin, it produces and elevates the lip, so
as to be called Superbus.

I have here represented its action, but it will be obsened that it
seldom acts singly ; for while the lower lip is protruded with peculiar
meaning over the upper one, the Triangularis Oris, f. at

* " Rides, ait, et nimis uncis

Pers. Sat. 1 .

" Naribus indulses." —

Minus aptus acutis naribus, &c.

Emunctae naiis, &c.

the same time draws down the angle of the mouth, while fre-
quently the nostril is raised by the action of the muscle a.

EXPLANATION

PLATE IV.

OF THE MUSCLES OF THE FACE OF ANIMALS.

The head of a dog dissected, to shew the muscular apparatus in the
Carnivorous Animal.

A. A. The circular fibres which surround the eyehds, and which
are common to all animals.
B, c. D. Accessary muscles, which I have called Scintillantes, as
they draw back the eyelids upon the eyeball, and give a
sparkling fierceness to the eye.

Artists bestow an expression on the eye of the lion, which
they suppose gives dignity — a kind of knitting of the eyebrows,
whilst the eyelids are straining wide — this is quite incompatible with
the powers of expression in brutes. When the lion closes th€ eyes

in repose, the strength of the muscles of the eyehds produces an
effect similar to the morose human expression, but when he is ex-
cited, and the eye strains wide, there is no such character.

F. G. H. Muscles of the Ear. These cover the strong muscles
of the jaw, and this circumstance explains why these muscles
have no proper origin. The under layer of muscles prevents
the possibility of these upper muscles being attached to the
bone, and they have no other point of origin than in the general
expansion formed by the union of their own fibres with each
other. There is in all animals a wonderful provision in the nu-
merous muscles of the ear, for its exertion and tension to receive
the vibrations of sound, and for the direction of the ear. We
have already observed, that the web of muscular fibres, which is
expanded on the forehead in man, is reflected off fi-om the skull
to the ear in the lower animals ; an example of which we have
here.

I. K. The mass of muscular fibres, which is always the strongest in
this class of animals, and which, with those lying under this
outer layer, I call Ringentes, as being the cause of the
peculiar and characteristic expression in the Carnivorous
Animal.

L. The muscle moving the nostril in smelling.

M. The circular fibres of the mouth, which yet do not make a per-
fect Orbicular Muscle.

N. A muscle which answers to the Zygomaticus in man, and which

Lmdon Bihiished hLonfman (ci^Jitm 9^J80S

in this animal must have great power, as it reaches from the ear
to the angle of the mouth. It must retract the angle of the
mouth, as well as act in mastication, which is probably the
reason of its being stronger than in the graminivorous
animals.
o. The Cutaneous Muscle, which sends up a web of fibres from
the neck upon the side of the face. These fibres are much
stronger than in man.

I have just observed that painters have given to the heads of lions
an expression which we cannot perceive in nature. Rubens, in his
picture of Daniel in the Lions' Den, has given human expression to
the heads of the lions. Notwithstanding this, it appears to me still
a matter of some doubt, whether the mingling of human expression
with the features of savage animals, is in the true spirit of that prin-
ciple of association which should govern the adaptation of expression
and character, so as to produce an ideal form.

However this may be, there seems to me a distinction to be
preserved when the lion is to be presented in his natural state, and
where emblematical. Represented in his den, or in the forest, the
picture should be as a portrait, in which the natural character and
features are preserved ; but where he is couched amid the insignia of
empire, the natural character may perhaps be tempered with
somewhat of human expression.

I have placed at the head of this section, the head of a horse from
the picture of the battle of Constantine, by Julio Romano; I wish
that it should now be compared Avith the engraving in plate V.
from our much admired Northcote. We see at once that this of Julio
Romano is an ideal head; we say that it is a horse, rather because
there is a bridle in the mouth, than because we recognize the natural
character of that animal. Instead of the full clear eye standing
prominent on the temple, we see an eye sunk deep, with an over-
hanging eyebrow, the character entirely human, and the expression

"75

thoughtflil and suspicious. In the hair of the forehead, and ni the
ears, we have more of the character of the bull, than of the horse ; and
in the roundness of the whole head also, and in the form of the neck,
the artist has preferred the model of the antique, to what in this
instance we may surely consider as the finer forms of nature; we have
here the nostril of the horse, but it wants expansion; and what is
most monstrous of all, thick and fleshy lips are given, and an open
mouth, which no power of association can ever teach us to admire.

There is a spirit and fire, and a kind of intelligence, in the horse's
head ; there is a beauty in the form of the neck, and an ease and
grandeur in the carriage of the head, Avhen a fine horse is untram-
melled and free, which, I am afraid, cannot be excelled by the sub-
stitution of an ideal form.

The evident intention, however, of the painter, in this instance, is
not to be neglected ; he wished to avoid that commonness of form
which represses the elevation of sentiment in the beholder, and
destroys the poetical effect of the picture.

The Essay which follows will point out the distinctions of
expression in the face of men and of animals ; a subject which I
think demands the artist's attention before he deviates from
natural character, for I must observe again, that the ideal beauty is
not to be attained without preserving some principle of associa-
tion.

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EXPLANATION

PLATE V.

Fig. 2. Exhibits the muscles of the Horse's Head.

A. A. The Orbicular Muscle of the Eyelids.

B. An Accessory Muscle to raise the eyehd.

c. A very peculiar Muscle, since it pulls down the eyelid.

D. A Muscle connected also with the eye, and arising from the

cartilages of the ear.

E. A Muscle answering to the Zygomatic Muscle in man.

These muscles, surrounding the eyelids of the horse, sufficiently
account for the superior expression of his eye. The muscle d. seems
to be calculated to operate upon the outer angle of the eye, and

enable the creature to direct the eye backward. In this it is proba-
bly assisted by the muscle e.

F. This forms a class of muscles which descend on the side of the

face, and are inserted into the nostril.

G. G. Muscular Fibres also operating in the distention of the tube

of the nostril.
H. A STRONG Muscle operating upon the cartilage, and inflating
the nostril with great power.

We cannot fail to observe the difference in the oeneral direction

and classing of the muscles of the face here and in the first figure.
In the latter, they all tend to lift the lips from the canine teeth, here
they pass to the nose and inflate it with great power: And this
circumstance, more than any other, marks the different character
and expression of the two classes of animals, the Carnivorous, and
Graminivorous.

I. The STRONG Muscle of the right side, which lying under f. sends
its tendon down upon the side of the nose, and then forms with
that of the other side the broad tendon k. which is inserted
into the upper lip.

There is a muscle on the lower jaw similar to this, hut which
cannot he seen in this view.

L. M. The CIRCULAR Fibres of the Lips, which in the horse are

particularly strong and fleshy.
N. A Web of Muscle reaching up from the cutaneous Muscle of

the neck.

These muscles, i. k. l. m. have all of them great power, and give
very extensive motion to the lips. k. is the tendon of the muscles-'
of the upper lip, which I have called, Depascentes, and it takes
this course over the nose to operate upon the fore part of the lips,
and raise them fi'om the Incisores.

I have placed on this plate a very beautiful head of a horse,
engraved from a sketch by Mr. Northcote, in order that it may be
compared with the dissected head: at the same time, as it possesses
a fine natural character, it may be contrasted with the marginal
plate.

ESSAY V.

OF THE EXPRESSION OF PASSION, AS ILLUSTRATED BY A COMPARISON OF THE
MUSCLES OF THE FACE IN MAN AND IN ANIMALS, AND OF THE MUSCLES PECU-
LUR TP AUN, AND THEIR EFFECTS IN BESTOWING HUMAN EXPRESSION.

In prosecuting enquiiy concerning the principles of expression
in painting, I encountered some unexpected difficulties while
attempting to explain the peculiar expression of madness and
fatuity. This naturally led me into a comparison of the muscles of
the face in man, with those of other animals ; and although I have
not so confirmed or digested my observations on madness and
fatuity, that I can venture to lay the result before my reader, the
incidental enquiry, which has thus been suggested, has furnished me
with some facts which seem to be curious, and some inferences which
may not be uninteresting, as connected at once with natural

history, with the principles of the fine arts, and with the philosophy
of mind.

The violent passions mark themselves so distinctly on the counte-
nance, both of man, and of animals, that AVe are apt in the first
instance to consider the movements by which they are indicated, as
certain signs or characters provided by nature for the express
purpose of intimating the internal emotion ; and to suppose that they
are interpreted by the observer in consequence of a peculiar
and instinctive faculty. This view of things, however, so natural at
first sight, is not altogether satisfactory to philosophy; and a more
jealous observation of the facts seems to suggest an opposite
theory, in which instinctive agency is rejected, and the appearances
are explained from a consideration of the necessities and voluntary
exertions of the animal. With regard to the observer, it has been as-
serted, that it is by experience alone that he distinguishes the signs of
the passions; that we learn, while infants, to consider smiles as ex
pressions of kindness, because they are accompanied by acts of bene-
ficence, and by endearments; and frowns as the contrary, because
we find them followed by blows; that the expression of anger in a
brute is only that which has been observed to precede his biting, and
that of fondness, his fawning and licking of the hand. With regard
to the creature itselfj it is said, what have been called the external
signs of passion are merely the concomitants of those volun-
tary movements, which the passion or habits suggest ; that the glare
of the lion's eye, for example, is the consequence of a volun-

tary exertion to see his prey more clearly — his grin or snarl, the
natural motion of uncasing his fangs before he uses them. This,
however, is not quite true of all animals, and all expressions of
passion.

Attending merely to the evidence furnished b}?^ anatomical investi-
gation, all that I shall venture to affirm is this, that a remarkable
difference is to be found between the anatomy and range of expres-
sion in man and in animals: That in the former, there seems to be a
systematic provision for that mode of communication and that na-
tural language, which is to be read in the changes of the countenance;
that there is no emotion in the mind of man which has not its appro-
priate signs; and that there are even muscles in the human face, to
which no other use can be assigned, than to serve as the organs of
this language : That on the other hand there is in the lower animals
no range of expression which is not fairly referable as a mere
accessory to the voluntary or needful actions of the animal; and
that this accessory expression does not appear to be in any degree
commensurate to the variety and extent of the animal's passions.

There appears to me to be no expression in the face of any animal
lower in the scale of being than quadrupeds; and in them the
strongest and most marked expression is that of rage; the object of
which is opposition, resistance, and defence. But on examination it

will be found (consistently with the position, that this is merelj'^ an
accessory of the motions natural to the accomplishment of the object
which the animal has in view) that the strength of the expression is
in exact proportion to the strength of the principal action in the
creature when thus excited.

The graminivorous animals, which seek their subsistence not by
preying upon others, nor by the ferocitj^ contest, and victory which
supply the carnivorous with food, have in their features no strong ex-
pression of rage. Their expression is chiefly confined indeed to the
effect produced on the general system. Thus the inflamed eye
and the breathing nostrils of the bull are induced only by the general
excitement. His only proper expression of rage is in the position of
the head, with the horns turned obliquely to the ground, ready to
strike; and indeed it may be observed in general, that animals which
strike with the horns show little indication either of fear or rage,
except in the position of the head. In all graminivorous animals,
the skin of the head is closely attached to the skull, and capable
only of very limited motion : the eye is almost uniformly mild, and
the lips unmoved by passion.

It is in carnivorous animals, with whose habits and manner of life
ferocity is instinctively connected, as the great means of their
subsistence, that rage is distinguished by the most remarkable
strength of expression. The eyeball is terrible, and the retraction
of the flesh of the lips indicates the most savage fury. But the first
is merely the excited attention of the animal; and the other a pre-

paratory exposure of the canine teeth. The great animals of prey,
the lion and the tiger, are quite incapable of any other expression
of feature, than this particular display of ferociousness. When they
fawn upon their keeper, there is no motion in their features that in-
dicates affection.

6f all the animals with whose habits we are acquainted, the
elephant seems to approach the most nearly to the sagacity of man,
and to feel more of the keen attachments and vindictive resent-
ments which distinguish our race. But in the immoveable mask of
this creature, there is no expression of peculiar feelings, no
consent of feature, no symptom of anger or movement of
fondness.

The horse is universally considered as a noble animal, as he
possesses the expression of courage without the ferociousness of the
beast of prey; and as there is expression in his eye and nostril,
accompanied by that consent betwixt the motions of the ear and the
eye, which so much resembles the exertion of mind, and the move-
ments of the human countenance. But even this more perfect
expression is merely the result of an incidental consent of animal
motions, and is not a proof of peculiar intelligence any more
than the diminutive eye and unexpressive face of the elephant.
The motion of the eye and ear of the horse are physical
consequences of the necessities of the animal. His defence lies in
the hind feet, and there is a peculiar provision both in the form of

the skull, and in the muscles, for that retroverted direction of the
eye, which seems so peculiarly expressive in the horse, but which is
merely intended to guide the blow: And from the connection of
muscles, the ear must consent in its motion with this expression of
the eye. Again, the fleshiness of the lips, and of the nostril of a
horse, and the inflation of the nostril, are merely incidental
to the peculiar provisions for the animal's respiration, and to
the necessary motions of the lips, suited to the habits of his
hfe.

In man we not only see united all the capacities for expression,
and all the incidental and necessarj'^ effects of the several motions of
features, which are to be found in the several classes of quadrupeds,
but we fmd besides, several peculiar muscles, to which no other
office can be assigned, than to act as organs of expression ; to serve
as instruments of that universal language which has been called
instinctive, which at least produces something like the eflfect of
innate sympathy, and seems to be independent of experience or
arbitrary custom.

It is, in short, of man alone that we can with strict propriety saj'",
the countenance is an index of the mind, having expression corre-
sponding with each emotion of the soul. Other animals have no ex-
pression but that which arises by mere accident, the concomitant of
the motions necessary to the accomplishment of the object of the
passions.

Were my enquiries directed to the philosophy of this subject,
this is perhaps the conclusion in which I should be inclined to
acquiesce; but without presuming to settle that question finally,
I have to remark, as relative to painting, my original subject of
enquiry, that this remarkable difference between the expression in
man and animals, naturally leads us to investigate what are the pecu-
liarities of mere animal expression ? how far they are distinguishable
in the human countenance ? and what are the traits of expression
peculiarly characteristic of human emotion ? This is what I propose
as the subject of this Essay.

OF THE MUSCLES OF ANIMALS MORE PARTICULARLY.

In order to see distinctly what the peculiarities of mere animal
expression are, it seems proper to reduce the muscles of expression
in animals to their proper classes. These muscles, as they appear in
the several quadrupeds, may be distinguished into, 1. Those which
raise the lips from the teeth; 2. Those which surround the eyelids;
and 3. Those which move the nostril.

1 . The first of these classes, viz. the muscles which raise the lips
from the teeth, admit of a subdivision. In the carnivorous animal the
muscles of the lips are so directed as to raise the lip from the canine
teeth. In the graminivorous they are so directed as to raise the

lips from the Incisores. The former I would take the liberty
of distinguishing by the name of Ringentes, snarling muscles ; the
latter by the name of Depascentes.

The snarling muscles take their origin from the margin of the
orbit of the eye, and form the upper jaw, and are inserted into that
part of the upper lip from which the whiskers grow, and Avhich is
opposite to the canine teeth. Their sole office is to raise the upper
lip from the canine teeth, and although they are assisted in this office
by other muscles, (the masticating and zygomatic muscles) I have
ventured to distinguish them particularly as the muscles of snarling.
This action of snarling is quite peculiar to the ferocious and car-
nivorous animals. The graminivorous are incapable of it, and these
muscles consequently are to be found only in the former class, not in
the latter. In the carnivorous animals there is no perfect or regular
orbicular muscle, as in man, for contracting the lips. The lips hang
loose and relaxed, unless when drawn aside by the snarling muscles,
and the)'^ fall back into this state of relaxation, Avith the remission of
the action of these muscles.

The muscles of the lips, which in carnivorous animals are directed
to the side of the mouth, are in graminivorous animals directed to the
middle of the lip over the Incisores. I have given to these the name
of Depascentes from their use and destination in enabling the
animal to open its lips, so as to gather its food, and to bite the grass.
They are long muscles ; one set comes down upon the side of the

face, and joining in a broad tendon, passes over the nose to be
inserted into the upper Hp. Another set runs along the lower jaw,
and is inserted by a peculiar feathered tendon into the under lip.
The horse has these muscles very strong. In the stallion they give
a ver}'^ characteristic and peculiar expression, when he snuffs the
breeze, with his head high in air. When he bites, the expression is
entirely different from that of the carnivorous animal. Instead of
exposing the teeth, corresponding Avith the canine, he lifts the lips
from the fore teeth, and protrudes them. These muscles of the fore
part of the lip, the carnivorous animals have not. In them the lips
over the Incisores are not fleshy like those of the graminivorous
animals, but they are tied down to the gums, and the fore teeth are
uncovered only in consequence of the straining occasioned by re-
traction of the side of the mouth.

Although the graminivorous animals have not those muscles of the
lips, which so powerfully draw back the lips in the carnivorous ;
they have what the carnivorous animal does not require, an orbicular
muscle surrounding the mouth, and regulating the motion of their
fleshy lips.

2, Muscles which surround the eyelid. In man, the upper eyelid
is raised by a muscle coming from the bottom of the orbit. But
besides this muscle, animals of prey, in Avhom there is that peculiar
and ferocious splendour of the eye, which we distinguish in the tiger,
for example, or the lion, have three muscles infixed in the eyelids.

which drawing the eyelids backward upon the pecuHarly prominent
eyeball, produce the fixed straining of the eye, and by stretching the
coats, give a greater brilliancy to the reflection. These muscles may
be classed under the term Scintill antes. In the sheep, there is
only a web of fibres to raise the eyelid. In the horse, there is a
muscle to pull down the lower eyelid, and one passing from the ear
to the outer angle of the eyelid to retract it, and enable the animal
to direct the pupil backward where his defence lies.

3. The muscles of the nostril are not less distinct and peculiar in
different classes of animals, than those of the eye and lips. In the car-
nivorous animals the nose is comparatively insignificant, provision
being made in the open mouth for any occasional increase of
respiration above the uniform play of the lungs; while in the
inoffensive animals, the prey of the more ferocious, the inflation
of the nostril is provided for by the action of a peculiar set of
muscles.

For example, in the horse " the glory of whose nostrils is terrible,"
the muscles which inflate the nostril are very peculiar. They arise
like the Ringentes of the carnivorous animals; but instead of being
fixed into the lips, as in carnivorous animals whose lips are to be
raised from the canine teeth, they pass to the nostrils, and in combi-
nation with some lesser muscles powerfully inflate them when the
animal is pushed to his speed, or excited by fear, or inflamed to rage.
In the sheep, though the nostril seems to have a very limited power

of expansion, and the animal is soon run down, yet the muscles of
the nostril are particularly strong compared with those of a dog, wliich
has only a small muscle for those quick motions of the nostril, which
we may observe Avhile the animal is smelling. In the fear and
panting of a sheep, the motion of the nostril is perhaps the only trait
of expression.

OF THE MUSCLES OF THE FACE IN MAN,

When we turn our attention to the muscles of the human counte-
nance, we perceive, that while the motion of the lips, and nostrils,
have not the same extensive range as in the several classes of
animals, there is combined in the face of man a capacity for all the
variety of expressions which distinguish the several kinds, of whose
nature he partakes. He stands, as it were between the carnivorous
and graminivorous animals, or rather it were more correct to say,
that he partakes of the nature of both. He has the snarling muscles
which we have observed so peculiarly to distinguish the carnivorous
animals, while he is able to protrude the lips, and uncover the
Incisores. In the carnivorous animals we have seen, that while the
muscles that descend from the bones of the cheek and upper jaw
to raise the lips are very strong, the orbicular, or circular fibres-of the
lips are very imperfect, the lip being tied down at the fore part to

the gums. And that in the graminivorous animals on the contrary,
the orbicular muscle is nearly perfect, while the elevating and
depressing muscles of the side of the mouth are deficient. But in
man, both those classes of muscles are combined; the elevating and
depressing muscles are perfect, while the orbicular muscle completely
antagonizes them, modulating and qualifying these actions, and be-
stowing the utmost perfection on the motion of the lips. The
effect of this in laughter, smiling, and weeping, shall be afterwards
noticed.

But besides the muscles analogous to those of brutes, there is an
intertexture of muscles in the human countenance, which evinces a
provision for expression quite independent of the original destination
of those muscles that are common to him and animals. There are
muscles not only peculiar to the human countenance, but which act
where it is impossible to conceive any other object for their exertion
than that of expressing feeling and sentiment. These muscles indi-
cate emotions, and 83^x1 pathies, of which the lower animals are not
susceptible, and as they are peculiar to the human face, they may
be considered as the index of mental energy in opposition to mere
animal expression.

The parts of the human face the most moveable and the most
expressive, are the inner extremity of the eyebrow, and the angle of
the mouth, and these are precisely the parts of the face which in
brutes have least expi'ession ; for the brutes have no eyebrows, and

no power of elevating or depressing the angle of the mouth.
It is in these featuress therefore that we should expect to find
the muscles of expression peculiar to man.

1 . The most remarkable of the muscles peculiarly human, is the
corrugator supercilii. It arises from the frontal bone, near the union,
with the nasal bones, and is inserted into the skin of the eyebrow.
It knits the eyebrows with a peculiar and energetic meaning, which
unaccountably, but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind and senti-
ment.

The anterior portion of the occipito-frontalis muscle is the anta-
gonist of the orbicular muscle of the eyelid. It is wanting in the
animals we have already examined, and in its stead, fibres more or
less strong are found to be directly inserted into the eyelids*.

The motion of the features, which, next to that produced by the
corrugator supercilii, is the most peculiarly expressive of human sen-
sibility and passion, is at the angle of the mouth; and at one time I
had conceived, that the muscle which is called the superbus, and
which elevates and protrudes the under lip, was peculiar to man;
but I was deceived. The peculiarity of human expression is in the
triangularis oris, or depressor anguli oris, a muscle which I have not
found in any other animal; which I believe to be peculiar to the

* The expanded muscle of the skull in brutes is reflected off to the ear.

human face, and for which I have been able to assign no other use
than belongs to an organ of expression. It arises from the base of
the lower jaw, and passes up to be inserted with the converging fibres
of almost all the muscles of the side of the face at the corner of the
mouth. It produces that arching of the lip so expressive of con-
tempt, hatred, jealousy ; and in combination with the elevator of
the under lip, and the orbicularis, it has a larger share than any other
muscle in the infinite variety of motion in the mouth, expressive of
sentiment.

When we compare the dissected muscles of the human head, with
those of animals, we may perceive many smaller distinctions, into a
detail of which I shall not at present enter. The Depressor Al^
Nasi ; the Nasalis Labii Superiores ; the descending fibres of
the Occipito-Frontalis, are not in the brute; and in general the
more minute and fasciculated structure of all the muscles of the lips,
in the face of man, indicates a decided superiority in the provision
for the motion of the features.

effects of the muscles of expression in man and animals.

We have already taken occasion to observe, that the chief expres-
sion of which the faces of animals seem capable, are those of rage and

of fear. Even pain is very obscurely indicated, except in the voice,
and in the writhing and struggling of the body.

Rage is expressed most strongly by the carnivorous animals : in
them it is wild and ferocious and terrifying. In the milder class
of animals the chief expression is such as may be called Tonic;
the effect of the excited state of the body. The rage of the carnivo-
rous animal, so far as it appears in the expression of the face, is found
in the strong action of the Ringentes or snarling muscles, the expo-
sure of the canine teeth, the gnashing of the tusks, and the brilliant
state of excitement of the eye. The rage of the graminivorous
is chiefly to be found in the eye, and in the inflation of the nostril.
The expression of human rage participates of both these; the cor-
responding muscles of the lips and nostril, producing a similar action
with that of animals; an exposure and gnashing of the teeth; a
degree of sparkling of the eye, and an inflation of the nostril. And
of a face under the influence of such action, a spectator would
infallibly say, that the aspect is perfectly brutal, savage, and
cruel. But when the Corrugator Supercilii, a muscle peculiar to
human expression, is brought into action, the sign is altered. The
eyebrows are knit, the energy of mind is apparent, and the
mingling of human thought and emotion with the savage and
brutal rage of the mere animal.

In man, the action of the frontal muscle, and Corrugator Supercilii,
and of the orbicular muscle of the mouth, bestows a greater latitude

of expression: and if in addition to the action of these muscles,
instead of the wide drawn hps, and the exposure of the teeth, as in
the rage or bodily pain of animals, the mouth is half closed; the lips
inflated by the action of the circular fibres, and drawn down by the
action of the peculiarly human muscle, the depressor anguli oris,
there is then more of agony of mind than of mere bodily suffering; a
combination of muscular actions of which animals are incapable.

The action of the orbicular muscle of the lips is indeed as charac-
teristic, perhaps, as any of agony of mind, and of all those passions
which partake of sentiment. In grief, in vexation of spirit, in
weeping, it modifies the action of the muscles of animal expression
into human character.

Fear seems to be characterised in animals chiefly by a tonic effect
on the body; by something like a mingling of anger, and a prepara-
tion for defence, with the shrinking of alarm in the more ferocious
animals; and a straining of the eye and inflated nostril, with
trembling in the milder. In human fear and suspicion, the nostril is
inflated, and the eye has that backward, jealous, and timid
character which we fmd in the horse, and in all the class of milder
animals.

The orbicular muscle of the lips wdth the complete system
of elevating and depressing muscles which is found in man, lead to
expressions peculiarly human. And here I may observe, that expres-

sion is not always the effect of an universal tension of the muscles
of the face, nor directly of the action of individual muscles. It
sometimes is the effect of mere relaxation ; and of this smiling and
laughter furnish the most apposite examples. The capacity of re-
ceiving ludicrous ideas is as completely denied to animals as they are
utterly incapable of the accompanying action of laughter. Dogs,
in their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion of the lips,
and grin and snuff amidst their frolic and fond gambols, in a way
nearly resembling laughter ; but there is truly nothing in all this
which approaches to human expression. That expression is pro-
duced by the relaxation of the orbicular muscle of the lips, and the
consequent preponderance of the elevating muscles; and of course
the expression of laughter can exist only in a face Avhich possesses
both the orbicular and the straight muscles of the lips in perfection.

In laughter the cheek is raised, and there seems to be an
action of muscles similar to that of weeping and mere bodily pain,
but the character of the cheek and lips is quite different. This
arises from a difference in the state of the orbicular muscle. In
smiling the orbicular muscle is merely relaxed, whereas, in anger
and pain it is forcibly drawn by the other muscles. It is in this re-
laxation, and in the necessary preponderance of the antagonist
muscles, more than in the action of the zigomatic and elevator
muscles, that the expression of smiling is to be found, and the cheer-
ful fullness of the cheek. In violent laughter there is a further

100

excitement of the elevating muscles of the cheek, with a greater
degree of relaxation of the lips.

In the human emotions of contempt, pride, suspicion, and
jealousy, the orbicular muscle of the lips, and most particularly the
Triangularis oris, produce by their combination the arching of the
lips; the depression of the angle of the mouth; the bitter horizontal
drawing of the lips which just discloses the teeth, and betrays the
several malignant passions.

In grief, the muscles of the eyebrow and those of the lips are com-
bined in expression ; hence the combination of that upward inversion
of the eyebrow which characterises peevishness, discontent, and
sinking of the spirits, with the depression of the angle of the mouth,
so distinctly indicative of the harassed and subdued state of the
mind.

By the combination of those grosser features of expression, many
of the lesser traits, and much of that various play of the features most
expressiveof human passions are produced in joy, hope, admiration,
anxiet}^, fear, horror, despair; and thus while the human countenance
is capable both of the rage of the more ferocious animals, and of the
timid expression of the milder, it possesses powers of expression
almost to infinity, by the combined action of a few superadded
and peculiar muscles.

101

It is curious thus to observe how the muscles, by producing
distinct expression, afford a new occasion of distinguishing the
tribes of animals: and, as signs of superior intelligence, become
proofs of the higher endowments of man, and a demonstration of the
peculiar frame and excellence of his nature.

As the enquiry in which I have been engaged has reference to
painting, and the representation of emotion, I may be allowed, while
thus considering the peculiarities of human expression, to add, that
the imposing effect of a fine head in painting, and in sculpture,
depends upon the artist preserving the perfection of human
character.

The expression of the whole head, and of the individual features,
must be strictly and peculiarly human to be grand or imposing. And
although the form of the brute-head is often highly beautiful, yet
when transferred to the human, it is found incongruous and incom-
patible; it produces unpleasing associations, and degrades the cha-
racter as inconsistent with the expressions of that intellect which must
always form part of the idea communicated by human physiognomy.
So it is also with individual features. Wherever the imagination
catches an idea of brutal character in the eye, nose, lips, teeth, or
ears, the form by reminding us of animal expression, is found to be
incompatible with human beauty.

The character of the human head has reference chiefly to the
structure of the bones; a subject which is already treated of

102

in a former essay. But there is at least one part of the
character of human beauty, of which it is not out of place here
to take notice, namely, that which is founded on the capacity for
expression.

This capacity of expression, this indication of a mind susceptible
of great, or of tender emotions, has a great share in human beauty;
whether in the living countenance, or in that Avhich the pencil
presents. How different the tame regularity of a merely placid
countenance, from what strikes the spectator when he beholds the
indications of a great mind in that susceptibilitj'^ of emotion and
energy, which marks the brow, and animates the eye of the hero even
in the calmest scenes of life. How fascinating when compared with
the insipid prettiness and regular features of an inanimate beauty is
that susceptibility which lightens up the countenance and plays upon
the features of a woman of sensibility, even while she is unmoved
by any particular affection.

The full clear eye; the arched and moveable eyebrow; the
smooth and polished forehead; as indicating this kind ofca])acity,
this susceptibility of emotion, and power of expression, are grand
features of human character and beauty. And the perfection of
their beauty is found whenever the spectator is made sensible of this
inherent, this latent power of expression, while no prevailing passion
gives a cast to the features. But a great portion of tlie beauty of
the human face is in the nose and mouth ; in a nostril which has the
full capacity for expression, without being too membraneous and in-

103

flatable, for that produces a mean and imbecile kind of fierceness;
and in lips at once fleshy and apparently mobile and capable of that
various modulation of form which characterises human emotion.

If I could flatter myself that in this attempt to point out the
muscles upon which the peculiar power of human expression
depends, I had in any degree succeeded; or that any advances had
thus been made towards a scientific principle in the art of represent-
ing the character of the passions, I should still be aware how little
the painter can be assisted by any speculative enquiry, or theory of
his art; and that painting never can, more than her sister poetry, be
brought to excellence Avithout the cultivation of the susceptibilities
of the mind.

ESSAY VI.

'■<• Pajffl24.

ESSAY VI.

IDEA OP A LEADINii PRINCIPLE IN THE EXPRESSION OP EMOTION— OF THE ACTION OF
THE MUSCLES OF THE FACE AS EXPRESSIVE OF PASSION.

It has often been observed that there is in the features of an impas-
sioned countenance, a consent and accordance of expression. It is not
upon a single feature that the emotion operates, but the whole face is
marked with expression, all the movements of which are consenta-
neous. This is referable to some cause operating generally on the
tone and state of the frame, the particular expression of individual
emotion being distinguished by the action and determination of
particular features.

108

Taking indifference as the line of distinction between the two great
classes of pain and pleasure, the class of sensations above this hne are
weak compared with those below. The simple sensations of pleasure,
before they are heightened and diversified by the multiplied associa-
tions of mental affection, are soft and gentle in their nature. The
class of painful sensations is very different in character : they are
powerful and overwhelming ; they are meant as our guardians and
protectors against danger and death, and operate with resistless force.
The pleasurable sensations induce a languor and delight, and partake
of the quality of indulgence and relaxation; the painful excite to
the most violent tension, and make all the muscular frame start into

convulsive action.

The emotions and passions of the soul, grounded originally on these
great classes of sensation, raised and increased by the mingling of
hopes and fears, and the combinations of analogous and associated
images of delight or of danger, take their great constitutional traits of
expression from the general tone of pleasure or of pain.

In pain, the body is exerted to violent tension, and all the emotions
and passions which are allied to pain, or have their origin and foun-
dation in painful sensations, have distinctly this character in common,
that there is tension, or a start into exertion or tremor, the effect
of universal and great excitement. It must at the same time
be recollected, that all the passions of this class, some more im-

109

mediately, others more indirectly, produce a loss of tone, exhaustion,
and debility, from over exertion.

On the other hand, as pleasure is characterized by languor, soft
tranquillity, and relaxation from bodily exertion, all the emotions
related to it, or deducible from pleasurable sensations, are charac-
terized by the prevailing state of the system, by a degree of inaction,
and as it were forgetfulness of bodily exertion, and an indul-
gence in mental contemplation. The contemplation of beauty,
or the admiration of soft music, produces a sense of languor;
the body reclines, the lips are half opened, the eyes have a
softened lustre from the falling of the eyelids, the breathing
is slow, and from the absolute neglect of bodily sensation, and the
temporary interruption of respiration, there is a frequent low drawn

sigh.

To the distinction now suggested, an objection may occur from
the debility of fear, and the high exhilaration of joy. A more
particular examination, however, will confirm the argument by
these very illustrations. We shall have occasion to see, in con-
sidering the individual passions, that there is much variety in the
expression of fear; and that where the alarmed senses are accompani-
ed by a strong effort to comi)rehend the nature of the ai)proaching
dan^^er. there is relaxation, or weakness of the bodily frame.
Where there is dread of bodily pain and suffering, the body is
energetic and full of action ; while the distraction of doubt, the
effort to comprehend, and a sense of supernatural and resistless

110

power, produce one of the most peculiar and characteristic states of
which the human frame is susceptible.

Joy is distinguishable from pleasure. It consists not so much in
the sense of gratification, as in the delight occasioned by the convic-
tion that the long expected pleasure is within our reach, and
by the lively review of the enjoyment which is now decked out and
adorned in its most favoured and alluring shape. A certain
sensation of want is mingled in the feeling of joy; a recollection of
the alternate hopes and fears which formerly distracted the mind,
as contrasted with the immediate assurance of gratification.

But laughter may also seem to be at variance with the leading
principles of my arrangement of the passions. Here also, however,
we find another confirmation of our leading principle. Is there
any tension or exertion when a smile plays upon the lips ? Quite
the contrary. Softness and languor spread over the countenance,
most especially when the smile is of admiration, of love, or of
benevolence. Even when the fancy is tickled by something in-
congruous and ridiculous, the violent laughter which follows
is nothing more than an involuntary and convulsive state of the
respiratory organs and muscles of the face, the effect of relaxation,
not of energetic action, and it proceeds sometimes to a debility of
the muscles, so universal that we can with difficulty keep
our feet.

Although I have attempted here to suggest a leading principle for
an arrangement of the passions, I do not now intend to follow any
very systematical order in the hints which I mean to throw out.

We have already had occasion to remark, that the expression
which is peculiarly human, affects chiefly the angle of the mouth
and the inner extremity of the eyehrow. And it is to these
points that we have chiefly to attend in all our observations con-
cerning the expression of passion. These are the most moveable
parts of the face : to these points the muscles are, as it were,
concentrated; and it is accordingly upon the changes which
they undergo, that expression is acknowledged chiefly to depend.

To demonstrate how important these points of the features
are, we have only to make that experiment which Peter of Cortona
made before Francis the First of France; to sketch a placid
countenance, and touch lightl}^ with the pencil the angle of the
lips and the inner extremity of the eyebrows. By elevating or
depressing these, we shall quickly convey the expression of grief
or of laughter.

These parts, however, and all the features of an impassioned
countenance, have an accordance with each other. When the
angles of the mouth are depressed in grief, the eyebrows are not
elevated at the outer angles, as in laughter. When a smile plaj^s
around the mouth, or the cheek is elevated in laughter, the brows

112

are not raised as in grief". The characters of such opposite passions
are so distinct, that they cannot be combined where there is true
and genuine emotion. When we see them united by those who
have a ludicrous control over their muscles, the expression is
farcical and ridiculous. It never is by the affection of an individual
feature that emotion is truly expressed; there must be a consent and
accordance of expression in the whole countenance systematized
(if the expression be allowable) and united by the general tone of
tension or relaxation.

115

OF THE RELAXATION OF THE MUSCLES IN LANGUOR, FAINTNESS,
AND SORROW OF BODILY PAIN OF ANGUISH — AND OF DEATH.

1. Relaxation of languor, faintness, and sorrow. The
muscle which depresses the angles of the mouth (n. plate II.) is often
accompanied in its action by that of the corrugator muscle which
knits the e3rebroAvs, (b. plate II.) and this again is combined
frequenth' with the action of the central fibres of the frontal
muscle (a. Plate II.)

The depressing of the angle of the mouth gives an air of despondence
and languor to the countenance when accompanied with a general
relaxation of the features, or, in other words, of the muscles. AMien
the corrugator which knits the brows co-operates with it, there is
mingled in the expression something of mental energy ofmoroseness
or pain. If the frontal muscle joins its operation, an acute turn up-
wards is given to the inner part of the eyebrow, very different from
the effect of the general action of the frontal muscle, and decidedly
characteristic of an aguish debilitating pain, or of discontent, ac-
cording to the prevaihng cast of the rest of tlic countenance.

But a very limited observation will teach us, that while languor
and despondency are indicated by depression of the angle of the
mouth, the depression must be slight, not violent : for the depressor

114

ANGULi ORIS (n.) caiiiiot act strongly without the combination
of a muscle, viz, the superbus (plate III.) which quickly produces a
revolution in the expression, and makes the nether lip pout con-
temptuously.

In sorrow, that general languor which we have now described
pervades the Avhole countenance. The violence and tension of
grief, the agitations, the restlessness, the lamentations, and the
tumult, have, like all strong excitements, gradually exhausted the
frame. Sadness and regret, with depression of spirits and fond
recollections, have succeeded; and lassitude of the whole body,
with dejection of face and heaviness of the eyes, are the most
striking characteristics. The lips are relaxed and the lower jaw
drops ; the upper eyelid falls down and half covers the pupil
of the eye. The eye is frequently filled with tears, and the
eyebrows take an inclination similar to that which the depression
of the angles of the lips give to the mouth*.

I am not quite sure that in the grief of Constance there is not an
unnatural mixture of the tumult and violence of grief with the
contemplative recollections of sorrow. Her impatience and tur-
bulence, which makes her tear her hair, defy aW counsel and redress,

* Some luive been so far deceived by the effect of this raising of the e3-cbrows
towards tlie centre of the forehead as to give the same oblique Hne to the eyes;
but the canthiis or angle of the eye is fixed immoveably, and no working of passion
can alter it.

115

and call on death or madness as her sole relief, seem ill assorted
with that calmness of spirit which can stop to recollect and
enumerate in detail the figure and endearing manners of her
son.

Grief fills the room up of my absent child,
Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me;
Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words,
Reuieiiiliers me of all his gracious parts,
Stuffs out his vacant garments with his form,
Then have I reason to be fond of grief.
Fare you well ! had you had such a loss as I,
I could give better comfort than 3'ou do.
I will not keep this form upon my head

[Tearing off' her head clothes.
When there is such disorder in m}- wit.
O Lord, my boy, my Arthur, my fair son !
My life, my jo}', my food, my all the world !
My widow comfort, and mj' sorrows' cure !

This appears to me rather to be the stage of the passion which is
properly called sorrow ; the indulgence of which is attended with a
melancholy delight, and which can sanction the conclusion,
" Then have I reason to be fond of grief" Yet as conviction
returns at intervals upon the mind, a period of quiet and sorrowful
resignation is succeeded by starts and fi-antic bursts of grief

Though grief is in general distinguished by its violence, lamen-
tation, and tumult, while sorrow is silent, deep, brooding, and full of
depression, there is a stupefaction which sometimes characterises

116

grief " the lethargy of woe;" of which were I to attempt a delinea-
tion I should follow the idea of Ariosto's Angelica : " She stood on
the desert shore stupid and immoveable ; her hair was loose and
disordered; her hands were joined; and with unmoving lips she
raised her languid eyes to heaven."

--)

. OF BODILY PAIN, ANOVISH, AND DEATH.

117

In bodily pain and anguish the general cast of the features is like
that of grief; but instead of the torpid state of the muscles, which in
faintness, languor, and sadness, allows so total a relaxation that
the features gravitate as it were, there is in the muscles much
tension and action.

In this plate the pain is that of one sick, and in some degree
subdued by continual suffering. One striking feature of this ex-
pression is the confined nostril; for I have observed, that when the
suffering does not approach to extreme agon}^, the nostrils are
narrow and depressed. But an occasional pang will dilate the
nostril, cause the teeth to grind, draw wide the lips, raise the
eyebrow, make the eye sparkle as in extreme rage, and inflate all
the features.

In the preceding plate, page 112, we have a man forcibly
subdued in all his strength. The brows are more violently
knit, (which I conceive indicate here somewhat of rage and hatred
unsubdued,) and they are less elevated towards the centre of the
forehead; the nostril is inflated; the mouth open, but not stretched
wide : it is as if in a deep sonorous bellowing, and the whole face is
quivering with action.

In the UTMOST extremity of pain there are yet other distinctions
to be marked. In agony we may frequently perceive convulsive
motions in the cheeks and lips, and in the throat, which render all

118

little muscles particularly distinct: a violent tension is upon the
whole face, and the painter is constrained to mark the anatomy
strongly.

After I had sketched the expression in the succeeding marginal
plate, I had within these few days an opportimity of observing
the truth of that expression. In extracting a bullet from the arm
of a strong young man, I saw on turning my eye to his face that it
was turgid with blood; the veins on the forehead and temples
distinct; the teeth strongly fixed, and the lips drawn so as to expose
the teeth and gums; the brows strongly knit, and the nostril dis-
tended to the utmost, and at the same time drawn up.

As expressive of the clinching of the jaws, the muscle which
moves the lower jaw must be marked swelling and in strong action,
but one great part of the expression is in the action of the strong
drawn fibres of the cutaneous muscle (r. plate II.) which gives
a stringy tension to the neck, and violently draws down the corner
of the mouth.

The mingling of despair and rage and bodily pain is a very
difficult study for the painter. But he must be able to express
these mingled emotions; else how shall he represent the
varieties of death which the historical painter must exhibit?
In this marginal plate I have sketched the idea of a man who
has received a mortal blow, but who is infuriated like a beast.

119

Some wounds subdue at once the energies of the mind and
body : others shake the whole frame and countenance with horrible
convulsions.

V'A o-wtft'i?"/-- -^"-ir^ ■

The whole muscles are here exerted to the utmost, and the
strongest having the preponderance give the character. The
muscles which shut the jaw are stronger than those which open it;
the jaw is therefore strongly clinched. We see that the muscles

IfO

of the throat too (which are also those by which the jaw is drawn
down) are in action, and the convulsion of these muscles is to be
particularly marked. The nostril is inflated and drawn up, the lips
are open, and the angle is nearly drawn into a circle by the
simultaneous action of the following muscles in plate II : Levatores
Labiorum (f. g.) Zigomatici (h.) Buccinator (g. P. III.) Tri-
angularis Oris (n.) and Platysma Myoides (r.) The eyebrows
are strongly knit, and the eyeballs as if starting from their sockets.

If a man be shot, there will be no such ferocious expression.
There is here often a strange and inexplicable nervous effect, a
trembling and sinking of the body, with faintness and oppression ;
the face and body cold, pale, and livid. In a mortal gunshot wound
the character of the hero is lost; it yields to the universal law : yet
the feebleness of the palpitating breast, and the bewildered eye
in the death of a great man, strike us in certain circumstances
more forcibly perhaps than if we saw him in all his glory.

We cannot fail to observe how artfully the poets suit their de-
scriptions of death to that kind of interest in the person which they
have laboured to excit»; ; and this a judicious painter will not neg-
lect. The tyrant falls convulsed and distorted in painful agony ;
the hero, in whose fate the reader has been made to sympathise,
expires without the horrors of death ; his fall is described with all
the images of gentle declension, where mortal languor is succeeded
by insensibility, unaccompanied by pangs and struggles.

121

In the Episode of Nisus and Euryalus, Virgil gives to the death
of'Sulmo all the horror of violent death.

hasta volans noctis diverberat umbras

Et venit adversi in tergum Sulmonis, ibique
Frangitdr, ac fisso transit praecordia ligno,
Volvitur ille vomens calidum de pectore flunien
Frigidus, et longis singultibus ilia pulsat.

jEneid ix. 411.

But m painting the death of Euryalus, the poet recurs to all the
images of languid and gentle decline :

Volvitur Euryalus letho, pulchrosque per artus
It cruor, inque humeros cervix collapsa recunibit,
Purpureas veluti cum flos succisus aratro
Languescit moriens, lassove papavera collo,
Demisere caput pluvia cum forte gravantiu*.

jEneid ix. 433 f.

It will indeed often he necessary to represent death unaccom-
panied with the horror by which natural representation must

* Tasso presents us with some very fine contrasts of the same kind; in paintin»
the death of Argante, for example, he gives a picture of ferocious and savage impetuo-
sity and strength.

Infuriossi allor Tancredi et disse;
Cosi abusi,fellon, lapieta mia?
Pol la spada gli fisse et gli refisse
Nella viscera, ove accerto la via.
Moriva Argante, e tal moria qual visse:
Minacciava morendo, e non languia;

122

generally be distinguished. We not unfrequently see a young
creature in death, as if asleep, with the beauty of countenance
unobscured by convulsion ; the form alone remains ; the animation
is gone, and no colour beautifies the cheek.

E, quasi un cicl nottunio, anco screno
Senza splendor la faccia scolorita.

Tasso, Jer. Lib. Cant. 12. .81.

The necessity may occur of representing death as it approaches

Superbi formidabili, e feroci
Gli ultimi moti iiiv, I'uliinie voci.

Tasso, Jer. Lib. Cant. 19. ottava 2.

In the death of Dardinel, the simile of Virgil is beautifully imitated by Ariosto :

Come purpurco fior languendo muore
Che'l voniero al passar tagliato lassa
O come carco di supcrchio liumore
II papaver ne 1' horto il corpo abbassa
Cosi "-iu de la faccia osjni colore
Cadendo Dardinel di vita passa, &c.

As a further contrast take the death of the Soldans page :

E in atto si gentil, languir tremanti

Gli occhi e cader sul tergo il collo mira

Cosi vago e il pallore, c da sembianti

Di morte una pieta si dolce spira

Ch' ammoli il cor, &c. ix. 86.

t So of Nisus throwing himself upon the body of his friend, jEneid ix. iU.
Contrast also the death of Eumenius, lb. xi. 664, Avith that of Acca, and that of
Camilla, in the same book.

123

slowly, or perhaps the care-worn countenance and hectic flush of
long sickness, or even that which by physicians is called the
Facies Hippocratica, from the accurate description of it by
Hippocrates.

When the eyelids, lips, and nose are livid, death is fast approach-
ing: but often before the last scene the wasted form will rise
with an anxious delirious look before finally falling into the embrace
of death.

In death the eyes are dull and sunk; the features sharp; the nose
pointed; the nostril somewhat contracted; the surface cold and
pale and leaden coloured.

The painter must hold in recollection the difference between a
dead body which he may have seen on the table of the anatomist,
and the dead in battle. It may be sometimes necessary to give the
rigidity of death to the figure, but more frequently either the
convulsive tension of expiring life, or the relaxation of death;
as Homer describes his heroes, rolling in death, with limbs relaxed
and nen-eless.

It appears to me that the painter is too apt to take his ideas
of death ii-om the stage. But it is scarcely possible that from such
a source he can derive the materials of a natural, simple, or terrific
rej)resentation.

124

Often in death there is a gloom upon the countenance; the
eyebrow hangs low ; the eye is sunk and the orbit distinct ; the
nose is compressed and the lines of it sharp. The compression of the
nose is occasioned by the falling in of the nostril ; the lower jaw
falls, and the cheek is hollow. When the dead are dressed by the
undertaker for burial, and the jaw bound up, there is still something
very peculiar in the appearance of the mouth. There is no
breath hetwixt the lips and teeth, and the relaxed lips being forced
together, there is an unnatural fulness round the mouth, while the
lips themselves fall in.

A man who has died in battle lies blanched and very pale; he
bleeds to death. But one strangled or cut off by violence in civil
broil, amidst his efforts, has the blood settled in his face. The
following picture is truly horrible from its truth and accuracy:

But, see, his face is black, and full of blood;

His eyeballs further out than when he liv'd,

Staring full ghastly like a strangled man :

His hair uprear'd, his nostrils stretch'd with struggling;

His hands abroad display'd as one that grasp'd

And tugg'd for life, and was by strength subdu'd.

Look on the sheets ; his hair, you see, is sticking;

His well proportion'd beard made rough and rugged.

Like to the summer's corn by tempest lodg'd.

It cannot be, but he was murder'd here;

The least of all these signs were probable.

King Henry VI. Part II,

The character of gross sleep and apoplexy must depend very
much on the colouring. The latter especially is to be indicated by

125

the suffused bloated countenance; the eyes, if open, turgid and red
with blood. But Hogarth has shewn us that colours are not ne-
cessary to represent apoplexy. We must mark the indolent
corpulent habit ; the full round head and short neck ; the inflated
countenance; the valve-like action of the swelled lips upon the
breath.

ir.

OF LAUGHTER AND WEEPING.

126

We turn from an unpleasing subject, and it may be well to dissi-
pate the thoughts which it excites by surveying the more ludicrous
expressions of the countenance.

We iind that the part of the cheek which is over the cheek-bone
(osmalfe, PI. I. fig. 2.) has no muscles inserted into it, and of course
that it cannot be moved directly by the muscles. Yet perhaps the
character of the expression in laughter, w^eeping, or sneezing, de-
pends more upon the motion of this part than on the angle of the
mouth, for the cheek rises upon the socket of the eye, and wrinkles
])lay about the CN'es.

This rising of the cheek is produced by the conjoint action of the
elevating muscles*. By pulling up the lower part of the cheek they
accumulate it as it were upon the eye. In this ojieration the circular
fibres of the eyelids (orbicularis palpebrarum c. c.) assist, while
at the same time they press back the eyeball, so that the eye is
nearly closed, and peers through the tears, which in hearty laughter
flow in consequence of the pressure of the lachrymal gland.

Laughter makes these changes on the face : the eyebrows are
sometimes drawn down, but more generally their outer half is very
much arched; Avhile, in consequence of this elevation, their inner
extremity is pointed downwards ; and this is a turn of the eyebrow

D. F.

H. I. Plate II.

1-27

which never fails to give an archness to tlie expression. I'he mouth
is open, and the teeth appear; the angles of the mouth are drawn
backward and upward ; the nostrils are dilated ; the cheek raised,
and in violent laughter tears sometimes suffuse the eye.

The muscles in action are first the occipito frontalis a. and
the orbicular fibres of the eyelids c. c. Plate II.

It is the combined action of these which gives so very particular
and acute an arch to the eyebrow, and a different effect to the
action of the orbicular muscle of the eye from that which it produces
in crying.

Next the Levator Al^ Nasi (d.) raises the nostril, and dilates
It in a very particular and characteristic manner.

Further the cheek is raised, and the lips drawn by the combined
effect of all the muscles which are inserted into the lips from the
surrounding points of bone ; if we except the Triangularis Oris
(n.) The action of this last muscle converts the broad grin into the
contemptuous sneer.

The lowest class of the Dutch painters, and the caricature
draughtsman, have chiefly to do with broad laughter. It is too
ludicrous and too violent a straining of the features for other compo-
sitions. Yet a. a stud^^ as the means of understanding the action of

128

the muscles, and acquiring a mastery over the play of the features,
the historical painter must not neglect it.

The older painters, perhaps with this view, seem many of them to
have indulged in caricature.

When we see a little hlackguard grinning triumphantly, and
exulting in his mischief, we may see the origin of the thought
in the philosopher that laughter is a sudden conception of eminence
in ourselves.

i.'k^^

A smile has more variety of expression than laughter. It may
convey a thousand different meanings. The placid smile of

129

benignity ; the contemptuous arching of the lower lip * ; the smile
of sorrow ; the simper of conceit ; the distorted smile of the
drunken man, when tlie eyes with difficulty perform their office ;
the leer, &c.

The smile is produced by a less degree of the same action as
in laughing. The concentrated muscles near the angle of the
mouth dimple the cheek, and gi^e it some degree of fulness, while
a slighter elevation of the eyebrow produces a cheerfulness in the
eyes.

But there is an expression still more charming : a certain mobi-
lity of the features which indicates the susceptible mind of a lovely
woman, and is more enchanting than the dimpled cheek; an
evanescent illumination of the countenance which words cannot
conve\', and in the representation of which the painter has the supe-
riority over the poet.

* Virjr. ix. 710. lb. x. 742.

150

OF WEEPING.

I ha\e thrown the expression of weeping, from pain, into the face
of a fawn : for laying aside the tear of sensibility and grief, there is in
weeping something inexpressibly mean and ludicrous when it
appeai-s in the countenance of a man.

In the violence of weeping, accompanied with lamentation and
outcry, the face is flushed, or rather I may say, suffused with stagnant

131

blood, and the veins of the forehead are distended. There is ii
convulsive action in the muscles about the eyes; the brow is drawn
down; the cheek raised; the nostril drawn up, and the mouth
stretched laterally.

In weeping also, unless the convulsive action of the muscles be
very strong, the general expression of grief affects that part of the
eyebrows which is next the nose. It is turned up with a peevish
expression : the corners of the mouth also are depressed.

If we had a perfect knowledge of the function of the nerves, they
niiu'ht on all occasions inform us of the causes of those actions which
appear to us inexplicable. The distribution of the fifth pair of nerves
gives us a physical cause for the expression of the face in weeping:
for if we look upon a view of the nerves of the face* we shall find
that the same nerve supplies all the parts particularly affected. We
may observe that although Ave can command the features, the tears
will not be controlled. The lachrymal gland seems to be the part
upon which this sympathy is primarily exerted, when with a
pungent feehng in the membrane of the nose the whole of the
muscles supplied by the branches of this nerve (viz. the ophthalmic
and upper maxillary nerve) are strongly convulsed f.

* See Engravings of the Nerves, 4to. Longman's, Plate I. A. B. c. D. E.

t Homer is true to nature in representing this as the sudden effect produced
on Ulysses when he sees his father pour the dust upon his reverend head ; but his
ti-anslators do not seem to have understood the full effect of his picture. Odyss. B. 2 k

132

Through the intervention of the sympathetic nerve, probably there
is a strict sympathy betwixt the heart and lungs and the nose and
eyes, that may account for the sobbing and outcr)^, the convulsive
and interrupted heaving of the chest in weeping. In a child we
see the passion sometimes so violent that the breathing is quite sus-
pended, and the face becomes black.

«»i

133

III.

OF JOY AND DISCONTENT.

In joy the eyebrow is raised moderately, but without any angula-
rity ; the forehead is smooth; the eye full, lively, and sparkling ; the
nostril is moderately inflated, and a smile is on the lips. In all the
exhilarating emotions, the eyebrow, the eyelids, the nostril, the angle
of the mouth are raised. In the depressing passions it is the reverse.
For example, in discontent the brow is clouded, the nose peculiarly
arched, and the angle of the mouth drawn down verjr re-
markably.

^vS^-

134

I have here given a sketch of the testy, pettish, peevish counte-
nance bred of melancholy ; one who is incapable of receiving
satisfaction fi'om whatever source it may be offered; he cannot
endure any man to look steadily upon him, or even speak to him,
or laugh, or jest, or be familiar, or hem, or point, without thinking
himself contemned, insulted, or neglected.

This arching of the mouth and peculiar form of the wings
of the nose is produced by the conjoint action of the triangular
muscle which depresses the angles of the mouth, (n. Plate 11.)
and the superbus (i. Plate IIT.) whose individual action protrudes
the lower lip.

The very peevish turn given to the eyebrows, this acute upward
inflection of their inner extremity, and the meeting of the per-
pendicular and transverse furrows in the middle of the forehead,
is produced by the opposed action of the middle part of the
frontal muscle, (occipito frontalis a.) and the corrugator
muscle (b.)

13.5

I introduce this drawing not as exemplifying the action of the
muscles, but chiefly as a contrast to the other sketches. Here there
is a placid calmness in the features, a reverent attention with an
elevation of thought. The whole is very different from the working
of the features in the diversity of worldly passions.

156

SUSPICION, RAGE, REMORSE.

'*-;
■^'L

Habitual suspicion an'd JE;ALOusy are symptoms and accompani-
ments of melancholy. Envy may be classed with these expressions.
But it is an ungenerous repining, not a momentary passion*.

* It consumes a man as a moth does a garment to be a living anatomy, a skeleton,
to bealean and pale carcass quickened with the fiend, " intabescetque videndo.'"

" La' invidia, crudelissimo dolore di animo, per il bene altrui; fa ritirar tutti i
membri, comecontracre, etoffuscar leciglia,stringere denti, ritirar, leJabratorcersi con
cerla passione di sguaido qtiasi in atto di volere intendere et spiare i fatii altrui, &c.

LoMAzz. p. 130.

137

Suspicion is characterized by earnest attention, with a certain
timorous obliquity of the eyes. Spenser characterizes suspicion as

being

-foul, ill-favouved, and grim,

Under his eyebrows looking still askance,

And ever as Dissemblance laught on him,

Lowring on her with dangerous eye glance,

Shewing his nature in his countenance.

His rolling eyes did never rest in place,

But walkt each where for fear of hid mischance,

Holding a lattice still before bis face.

Through which he still did peep as forward he did pass.

Jealousy is marked by a more frowning and dark obliquity of the
eyes, as if he said, " I have an eye of you :" with the lowering eye-
brow there is combined a cruel expression of the lower part of the
face.

Jealousy is a fitful and unsteady passion : much of its character is
in the rapid vicissitudes from love to hate ; now absent, moody, and
distressed ; now courting love ; now ferocious and revengeful — it is
therefore difficult to represent it in painting. In poetry alone can it-
truly be presented in the vivid colours of nature; and even of poets,
Shakspeare alone seems to have been equal to the task. Sometimes
it may be personified in the countenance of a mean, pitiful, sus-
picious, yet oppressed creature : or again in a bold lowering counte-
nance, the body as if shrunk into itself like one brooding over
his state, and pieceing out a tissue of trilling incidents to abuse his
Judgment.

138

In jealousy the eyelid is fully lifted, and the eyebrows strongly
knit, so that the eyelid almost entirely disappears, and the eyeball
glares from under the bushy eyebrow. There is a general tension
on the muscles which concentrate round the mouth, and the lips are
drawn so as to shew the teeth with an expression of cruelty, depend-
ing in a great measure, perhaps, on the turn of the nostril, which ac-
companies the drawing of the lips. The mouth should express that
bitter anguish which the Italian poet has rather too distinctly
told:

Tricma '1 cor deiitro e trieman fuor Ic labbia

Non ]iiiola lingua disnodar parola,

La bocca amara e par die tosco v' habbia.

Again :

E per 1' ossa un tremor frcddo g]i scorre,
Con cor tralitto, c con pallitla faccia
E con voce trcinante, e bocca amara.

There seems to be a natural succession in Rage, Revenge, and
Remorse. I do not mean morally, but speaking with an eye to
our present enquiry concerning the traits of expression. A slight
change on the lineaments of rage gives the expression of revenge,
while the cruel eye. of revenge is tempered by the relaxing energy
of the lower part of the countenance in remorse.

139

^■wlA-

In rage the features are unsteady, the eyeballs are seen largely;
they roll and are inflated. The front is alternately knit and
raised in furrows by the motion of the ej^ebrows ; the nostrils are
inflated to the utmost ; the lips are swelled, and being draAvn, open
the comers of the mouth.

140

The action of the muscles is strongly marked. The whole visage
is sometimes pale, sometimes inflated, dark, and almost livid ; the
words are delivered strongly through the fixed teeth ; " the hair is
fixed on end like one distracted, and every joint should seem to curse
and ban *."

Tasso thus describes the rage of Argante :

Tacque; e M Pagano al soffcrir poco uso,
Morde le labbraf, e di furor si strugge.
Risponder vuol, ma '1 suono esce confuso,
Si come strido d' animal, che rugge;
O 'come apre le nubi, ond' egli e ciiiuso
Impetuoso il fulmine, e sen fugge:
Cosi pareva a forza ogni suo detto,
Tonando uscir dal' infiammato petto.

Cant. VI. 38.

* La furia, fa gT atti stoiti, et fuor di se; si comme di quelli che si avvolgono ne i
moti offensivi, senza riguardo alcuno, rendendosi vehementi in tutti gl' affetti, con
bocca aperta, et storta, che par che stridano ringliino urlino et si lamentino, strac-
ciandosi le membra et i panni et facendo altrc snianie.

LoMATZZO, lib. II. p. 135.

f As it is thought rather a mean expression in the statue of David with his sling,
that he bites his lip, so perhaps the poet should avoid an expression which has so
little dignity.

If the painter has any imagination and power of delineation, the reading of the
whole passage, -being the combat of Tancred and Argante, must inspire him with the
grandest conception of the sublime ferocity of the human figure in action.

^.^^

■\

Irnrhn PMislir,! iv Limpn/Jn li:i''.hiiKi''/806

141

But tlie passion may be much varied in the representation:
perhaps the eyes are fixed upon the ground; the countenance pale,
troubled, and threatening; the lip trembles, and the breath is sup-
pressed, or there is a deep and long inspiration.

The following passage from Metastasio seems to me accurately
descriptive of suppressed hatred and rage :

Non parli! Iguardi al siiolo

Lasci cader ! quel torbido sembiantCj

Pallido insieine e minaccioso, il labro

Chefremendo sospira,

Son chiari segni e di dolore, e d' ira.

In the following sketch I have endeavoured to represent those
feelings which succeed the last horrid act of revenge: the storm has
subsided, but the gloom is not 5'^et dissipated. Some compunctious
visitings of nature are in the lips, though the eye retains its severity.
By the posture and the fixed attention, I would indicate that the
survey of the now lifeless body carries back the train of thought
with a less severe judgment of past transactions.

142

lyy/y/

IV.

WONDER, ASTONISHMENT, FEAR, TERROR, HORROR, DESPAIR.

I class these together as nearly allied in expression, and as
frequently combined.

Wonder is that state of the mind in which the senses or appre-
hension are more satisfied than the understanding, in which there is

143

a conviction contrary to the usual train of our thoughts and
conclusions. It is indicated in the countenance by an eager stare,
the mouth being a Httle open, as in earnest attention. When com-
bined with admiration, a smile plays upon the cheek.

Astonishment is somewhat different from wonder. It OA'er-
whelms the faculties, and leaves the mind vacant, and the features
stupified and blank.

In Fear there are several degrees, which it is of some im.portance
to mark.

In SIMPLE BODILY FEAR there is mere animal expression, great
meanness, and almost total absence of mind and energy. Mr.
Burke, in his s}>eculations on fear, assimilates it, with perhaps too
little discrimination, to pain. " A man in great pain," he obsenes,
" has his teeth set ; his eyebrows are violentl}'^ contracted ; his fore-
head is Avrinkled ; his eyes are dragged inwards, and rolled with
great vehemence; his hair stands on end ; his voice is forced out in
short shrieks and groans ; and the whole fabric totters." — " Fear or
terror," he continues, " Avhich is an apprehension of pain or death,
exhibits exactly the same effects, approaching in violence to those
just mentioned, in proportion to tiie nearness of the cause, and the
weakness of the subject *.

* Sublime and Beautiful, p:ut iv. § 3. Cause of Pain and Fear.

144

But there is one distinguishing feature of the two expressions —
The immediate effect of pain is to produce an energetic action and
tension of the whole frame ; that of fear is to relax all the energy of
mind and body, to paralyse as it were every muscle. Mr. Burke
seems to have written loosely, in part from forgetting that pain and
fear are frequently combined, and partly from taking a view of the
subject too much limited to the particular conclusion which he
wished to enforce. There cannot be great pain without being
attended with the distraction of doubts and fears ; dread even of
death is a natural consequence of extreme pain, and so the expression
of fear in the countenance is frequently mingled with that of pain.
But perhaps there are few passions which may not, in consequence of
such combinations, be assimilated Avith equal truth — fear and hatred ;
hatred and rage; rage and vengeance and remorse. On the other
hand, confining the assimilation with pain to the case of simple
bodily fear, there is much truth in the observation of this eloquent
Avriter. The fear of boiling water falling on the legs gives certainly an
expression of the anticipation of scalding, resembling the meaner ex-
pression of bodily pain and suffering. As Mr. Burke says, fear in a
dog will no doubt be that of the lash, and he will yelp and howl as if
he actually felt the blows. This indeed is the only kind of fear
which animals know. The higher degrees of fear, in which
the mind operates, and which we shall see characterised in
the countenance by an expression peculiar to mental energy,
appears not in them.

14.5

In man the expression of mere bodily fear is, like that of animals,
without dignity ; it is the mean anticipation of pain. The ej^eball
is largely uncovered ; the eyes staring ; the eyebrows elevated to the
utmost stretch. There is a spasmodic affection of the diaphragm
and muscles of the chest, affecting the breathing, producing a gasp-
ing in the throat with an inflation of the nostril, convulsi\ e opening
of the mouth, and dropping of the jaw ; the lips nearly concealing the
teeth, yet allowing the tongue to be seen, the space between the
nostril and lip being full. There is a hoUowness and convulsive
trembling in the cheek, and lips, and muscles, on the side of the neck.
The whole animal functions are affected, and that nerve which is
called the sympathetic* seems the master spring. The lungs are
kept distended, while the breathing is short and rapid: and from the
connection of the ner^^es of the lungs and midriff -f- with those of the
side of the neck, and with the branches which supply the cutaneoiib
muscle of the cheek and neck, we may comprehend the cause of the
convulsive motion of this muscle. The aspect is pale and cadaverous
fi-om the receding of the blood. The hair is lifted up by the
creeping of the skin.

In the sketch at the head of this chapter I have endeavoured to
express fear mingled with wonder. But if we sliould suppose the
fear there represented to have arisen from apprehended danger still

* Engravings of the Nerves, 4to. Longmans, Plate III. where the course of this
Nerve is represented.

t See Plate U. of the Nerves.

146

remote, and that the object of fear approaches, the person trembles
and looks pale; a cold sweat is on liis face; he apprehends it now
about to cleave to him, and in proportion as there is less room for the
imagination to range in, as the danger is more distinctly visible, the
expression partakes more of actual bodily pain. The scream of
fear is heard, the eyes start forward, the lips are drawn wide, the
hands clenched, and the expression becomes more strictly animal ;
of such fear as is common to brutes. ..- *

I should give the name of Terror to that kind of fear in which the
mind takes part, in which there is a strong working of the imagina-
tion with greater energy, a more varying expression in the features,
and an action of those muscles which are peculiar to man, and which
seem to indicate his superior intelligence and mental feeling. The

147

steps are hurried and unequal; the eye bewildered; the inner ex-
tremit}^ of the eyebrows turned up and strongly knit by the action of
the corrugator and orbicular muscles, (b. c. c. plate II.) and dis-
tracted thought, anxiety, and alarm, are strongly indicated by this
expression, which belongs not to animals. The cheek is a little
elevated, and all the muscles which concentrate about the mouth are
in action. There is a kind of modulating action in the circular
muscle of the lip ; the lips are inflated, the mouth less open. The
icutaneous muscle, the platysma myoidcs (r. plate 11.) has a strong
• effect on the angle of the mouth and lower angle of the cheek and
neck. It is strongly contracted, and its strong fibres may be seen
starting into action like cords under the skin. In Metastasio,
the description of Cain after the death of Abel affords a good illustra-
tion of terror*.

Horror differs both from fear and from terror, though more nearly
allied to the last than to the first. It is superior to both in this,

* The imagination wanders; there is an indecision in the action and speech.

Canst thou quake and ciiange thy colour,
Murther th^' breath in middle of a word.
And then again begin, and stop again,
As if thou wast distraught and mad with terror r

Oh come gira

II sosjoettoso sguardo

Sollecito d' intorno ! onde que' passi

Ineguali,e furtivi ? ad ogni moto

D' un aura sol, che trale fronde gcma

Si volgc indietro, impallidiscc, e trema !

METASTASIO.

148

that it is less selfish, less imbued with alarm, more sympathetic,
having in contemplation the feelings of others, rather than a strict
and immediate relation to our own individual suffering. We are
struck with horror even at the spectacle of artificial distress, but it is
peculiarly excited bj'^ the danger or actual suffering of others. We
see a child under a waggon wheel, and in danger of being crushed by
the enormous weight, with sensations of extreme horror. Horror is
full of energy. The body is in the utmost tension, not unmanned as
with fear. A sensation of cold seems to chill the blood *, the flesh
creeps, and we feel that peculiar sensation which gives its name to
the emotion.

It is in the mingling of these emotions that some of the most
interesting features of expression, of which the human countenance
is capable, are to be found.

Terror, when mingled with astonishment, is fixed and mute.
The fugitive and unnerved steps of mere terror are changed for the
rooted and motionless figure of a creature appalled and stupified.
Spenser characterizes well this kind of terror :

He answered nought at all : but adding new

Fear to bis first amazement, staring wide
With stoney eyes and heartless hollow hue,

Astonislicd stood as one that had espied
Infernal furies with their chains untied,

* Me damp horror chilled at such bold words.

Milton, V. ver. 65.

149

And trembling every joint did inly quake,

And faltring tongue at last these words seemed foith to shake.

FAIRY QUEEN.

Homer paints the emotion thus : " Terror and consternation at
that sound the mind of Priam felt, erect his hair, bristled his limbs,
and with amaze he stood motionless."

Despair is a mingled emotion. While terror is in some measure
the balancing and distraction of a mind occupied with a possibility
of danger, despair is the total wreck of hope, the terrible assurance
of ruin having closed around beyond all power of escape. The ex-
pression of despair must vary with the nature of the distress of which
it forms the acme. In certain circumstances it will assume a bewil-
dered distracted air, as if madness were likely to afford the only
relief from mental agony. Sometimes there is at once a \^nldness in
the looks and total relaxation, as iffalling into insensibility ; or there
is upon the countenance of the desperate man a horrid gloom ; the
eye is tixed, yet he neither sees nor hears aught, nor is sensible of
what suiTOunds him. The features are shrunk, and pale and livid,
and convulsion and tremors affect the muscles of the face. Hogarth
has chosen well the scene of his picture of despair. In a gaming
house the:wreck of all hope affects, in a thousand various ways, the
victims of this horrible vice ; but in all pictures of despair an incon-
solable and total abandonment of those exertions to which hope in-
spirits and excites a man, forms an essential feature. We have two
fine pictures of despair painted in detail by English poets. One is
by Spenser, in Book I. Cant. 9. Stanz. 35. of the Fairy Queen.

150

The darksome cave they enter, where they find
That cursed man low sitting on the ground,
Musing full sadly in his sullen mind ;
His griesly locks long growen and unbound,
Disordered hung about his shoulders round
And hid his face ; through which his hollow eyne
Look deadly dull, and stared as astound ;
His rawbone cheeks through penury and pine
Were shrunk into his jaws as he did never dine.

The other picture of despair is in the tragedy of the Gamester,
where Beverley, after the most heart-rending reiteration of hope and
disappointments, having staked the last resource and final hope of
his wife and family on one fatal throw, imds himself suddenly
plunged into inevitable ruin.

" When all was lost, he fixed his eyes upon the ground, and stood
sometime with folded arms stupid and motionless : then snatching
his sword that hung against the wainscoat, he sat him down, and
with a look of fixed attention drew figures on the floor. At last he
started up ; looked wild and trembled ; and like a woman seized with
her sex's fits, laughed out aloud, while the tears trickled down his
face. So he left the room."

A painter may have to represent terror, despair, astonishment, and
supernatural awe mingled in one powerful expression of emotion.
In a mind racked with deep despair, conscious of strength and
courage, but withered and subdued by supernatural agency, the
expression is quite removed from all meanness. It must be

151

preserved grand and terrific. The hero may still appear though pal-
pitating and drained of vigour*.

* A beautiful example of this, in poetical description, occurs ift the passage where
Virgil paints the death of Turnus. Conscious of the opposition of heaven, and how
fruitless and unavailing all his efforts are, he shrinks unnerved from every exertion.
" His spirits, as in a dream, are all bound up."

Neque currentem se nee cognoscit euntem,
ToUentemve noanu, saxumque immane moventem :
Genua labant, gelidus concrcvit frigore sanguis:
Turn lapis ipse viri vacuum per inane volutus
Nee spatium evasit totum, nee pertulit ictum :
Ac velut in somnis oculos ubi languida pressit

152

111 this sketch of terror with despair there is a considerable change
in the action of the muscles from the appearance and physiognomy
of simple bodily fear. The muscles are trembling in action ; there
is more energy ; the e5^ebrows are more forcibly knit.

Milton has admirably sketched the nerveless stupefaction of
mingled astonishment and hoiTor.

On til' other side Adam, soon as he heard
The fatal trespass done by Eve, amuz'd,
Astonied stood and blank! while horror chill
Ran thro' his veins, and all his joints relaxed.
From his slack hand the garland wreathed for Eve
Down drop'd, and all the faded roses shed ;
Speechless he stood and pale! till thus at length
First to himself he inward silence broke.

B. ix. ver. 838.

Nocte quies, nequicquam avidos extendere cursus
Velle videmur et in mediis conatibus aegri
Succidimus; non lingua valet, non corpore notae
Sufficiunt vires, nee vox aut verba sequuntur :
Sic Turno quacunque viam virtute petivit
Successum deadira negat.

j^NElD. xii. 903.

lf)3

MADNESS.

If laying aside the peculiar expression of the features, I were to
set down what ought to be represented as the prevailing character
and physiognomy of a madman, I should say, that his body should

154

be strong and muscular, rigid and free from fat ; his skin bound ;
his features sharp; his eye sunk; his colour a dark brownish
yellow, tinctured with sallowness, without one spot of enlivening
carnation ; his hair sooty, black, stiff, and bushy ; or perhaps he
might be represented as of a pale sickly yellow, with wiry red hair:
yet in this I do not proceed upon the authority of the poet, for such I
have seen.

His burning eyen, whom bloody strokes di.l stain,
Stared full wide, and threw forth sparks of fire,
And more for rank dispiglit than for great pain
Shak't his long locks, coloured like copper wire.
And bit his tawny beard to show his raging ire.

I mean not here to trace the progress of the diseases of the mind,
but merely to throw out some hints respecting the character of the
outrageovis maniac.

You see him lying in his cell regardless of everv thing, with a
death-like fixed gloom upon his countenance. When I say it is a
death-like gloom, I mean a heaviness of the features without knit-
ting of the brows or action of the muscles.

If you watch him in his paroxysm you may see the blood working
to his head; his face acquires a darker red; he becomes restless;
then rising from his couch he paces his cell and tugs his chains.

1.55

Now his inflamed eye is fixed upon 3 ou, and his features lighten up
into an inexpressible wildness and ferocity.

The error into which a painter would naturally fall, is to represent
this expression by the swelling features of passion and the frowning
eyebrow ; but this would only convey the idea of passion, not of
madness. And the theory upon which we are to proceed in at-
tempting to convey this peculiar expression of ferocity amidst the
utter wreck of the intellect I conceiA^e to be this, that the expression
of mental energy should be avoided, and consequently all exertion of
those muscles which are peculiarly indicative of sentiment. This I
conceive indeed to be true to nature, but I am more certain that it is
correct in the theory of painting. I conceive it to be consistent with
nature, because I have observed (contrary to my expectation) that
there was not that energy, that knitting of the brows, that indignant
brooding and thoughtfulness in the face of madmen which is gene-
rally imagined to characterise their expression, and which we almost
uniformly find given to them in painting. There is a vacancy in
their laugh, and a want of meaning in their ferociousness.

To learn the character of the human countenance when devoid of
expression, and reduced to the state of brutality, we must have
recourse to the lower animals ; and as I have already hinted, study
their expression, their timidity, their watchfulness, their state of ex-
citement, and their ferociousness. If we should happily transfer

156

their expression to the human countenance, we should, as I cori-
ceive it, irresistibly convey the idea of madness, vacancy of mind,
and mere animal passion.

•

The rage of the most savage animal is derived from hunger or fear.
The violence of a madman arises from fear ; and unless in the utmost
violence of his rage, a mixture of fear will often be perceptible in his
countenance. Often in lucid intervals, during the less confirmed
state of the disease, they acknowledge their violence towards any
particular person to have arisen from a suspicion and fear of their
having intended some injury to them.

This fact accounts for the collected shrunk posture in which a
madman lies ; the rolling watchful eye which follows you ; and the
effect of the stern regard of his keeper, which often quiets him in his
utmost extravagance and greatest perturbation.

I have thus put down a few hints on a most unpleasant and dis-
tressing subject of contemplation. But it is only when the enthu-
siasm of an artist is strong enough to counteract his repugnance to
scenes in themselves harsh and unpleasant, when he is careful to
seek all occasions of storing his mind with images of human passion
and suffering, when he philosophically studies the mind and affections
as well as the body and features of man, that he can truly deserve
the name of a painter. I should otherwise be inclined to class him

157

with those physicians who, being educated to a profession the most
interesting, turn aside to grasp emokiments by gaudy accomplisli-
ments, rather than by the severe and unpleasant prosecution of
science.

M , l

w^wi ;

% V

•'i\

A
f

-i-- V

I \\i

r%,t^

ESSAY VII.

OF THE ECONOMY OF THE UVING BODY AS IT RELATES TO EXPRESSION AND
CHARACTER IN PAINTING.

The living body consists of parts and functions so intimately com-
bined as to form a perfect whole. The anatomist indeed is too apt
to look upon the several parts as distinct systems, but in our present
short review we have to consider them merely in their mutual relation
and strict dependance on each other.

The NERVOUS SYSTEM Comprehends the nobler division of func-
tions ; the brain, the organs of the senses, and the nerves. While
this may be considered as the seat of intellect and sensation, the
animal functions, otherwise insulated, are by its secret sj'mpathies
combined into a system. The will performs the voluntary motions
through the medium of the nerves, which having their origin in
the brain, are extended to all the parts of the body. But what are

162

called the vital functions are not under the command of the will.
They are too important to life, to be left to the precarious exercise
of the intellectual powers, yet these functions are not altogether
independent of the influence of the nerves. The nervous filaments
are extended to the heart, and wind about the vessels in their
course through the body. And thus on the one hand the passions
of the mind agitate the heart, and often the feelings seem to centre
there with palpitation and a sense of sinking ; while on the other, the
nerves, where affected by emotion, influence in no less a degree
the minute ramifications of the vessels which go to the surface, and
produce a visible effect as in blushing, or in the paleness and
coldness and shrinking of the skin in fear.

While the nerves have this power over the vascular system, they,
and the brain itself, are intimately dependant on the action of the
blood vessels ; for this inscrutable power of the nerves is preser\'ed
to them only by the perpetual contact and supply of the circulating
blood.

The VASCULAR SYSTEM consists of the heart arteries and veins.
They convey the blood through the whole body. The blood
contains the nutritious matter for the support of the body, while
it imparts, though in a less palpable way, the power of sensation to
the nerves, and the power of contraction to the muscles; or in other
words, the principle of life. The impulse of the heart throws out
the blood by the arteries to every part of the body ; the blood is re-

163

turned by the veins to the heart; and thus it flows in a perpetual
circle.

The heart then is the centre of the system of blood vessels.
The arteries are small and pulsating vessels, and the blood thrown
out by the action of the heart, and forced on in its course by the
arterial power, passes through the arteries with great velocity, so
that if an important branch be cut there is immediate danger to
hfe. The arteries therefore run deep, and nature gives them every
possible protection of bones and muscles. The artist never sees
them unless on the bare temples of old men, where they run a very
tortuous course, and may be perceived to beat strongly. The
veins by which the blood is returned to the heart have a form
different from the arteries. They are larger and more numerous.
They run in two sets; one deeper, the other more superficial,
and the blood returns through them with a slower and more
uniform course.

Of the veins the painter should remark, that in young people
they do not appear prominent or turgid, being restrained by the
elasticity of the skin : neither are they prominent in women, but
appear merely as faint blue lines in the transparent skin. I know
not whether the veins of women ought on any occasion to be
delineated, but in natural colouring their effect is a faint tinge of
blue, which gives a delicacy to the white, and mingles with the pre-
vailing carnation.

164

The effect of fatigue and strong action is to produce a feebleness
and swelling of the veins, which is thus explained. When the limbs
are at rest the returning blood is equally divided betwixt the superfi-
cial and the deep seated veins ; but when the muscles are in strong
and repeated action the deep veins are compressed, and the blood
must return in greater proportion by the superficial cutaneous
veins. Exercise, by accelerating the circulation too, and opening
the pores of the skin, relaxes the surface, and thus the veins
are allowed to dilate. This acceleration of the circulation gives
at the same time a higher colour to the whole surface.

In deep sleep, and especially after wine, the veins are turgid, and
the colour high. Virgil's description of Silenus, in the 6th Eclogue
is true to nature.

" Chromiset Mnasilus in antro

Silenum pueri somno videre jacentem,
Inflatum hesterno venas, ut semper, Jaccho.'

We must not fail to remark how the position alone affects the dis-
tension of the veinsi When the arm is raised above the head, and
remains so for a time, the veins become collapsed, and the surface
paler. Should the arm hang, or the veins be compressed, as in the
position of the arm of Hercules resting on his club, the veins swell,
and the colour is higher; for the same reason, that in a prisoner
bound with cords round the wrists, the benumbed and swelled

165

hands of a dark red indicate the severity of the binding, and bear
some relation probably to the expression in the face. Plere the
arteries are not compressed because they he deep, and are vessels
of povveri'ul action, and therefore the blood has access to the
extremities : but as the veins are compressed, the return of
the blood is prevented, and hence the turgid appearance of the
hands.

We speak commonly of horror running through the veins, and of
horror congealing the blood. The sensation is in the nenes ; but
as the state of the veins is the visible accompaniment of horror per-
vading the limbs, it sanctions and accounts for the phrase. The
circulation is affected through the medium of the nerves. Those de-
pressing passions which induce a debility of the limbs are attended
with paleness of the surface. The blood forsakes the minute
vessels, and is accumulated at the centre ; and this is naturally ac-
companied with palpitation and irregular motion of the heart : or
perhaps it would be more correct to say, that the effect of passion is
to disorder the motion of the heart; and the consequence is, that the
blood is no longer carried with its usual velocity to the surface. The
surface is cold and shrinks, and a shudder is felt upon it like a breeze
of air. But again, when the heart is roused by passion to
irregular and violent action, it swells up with blood and beats
violently ; the lungs, being in strict sympathy with the heart, become
irregular and constrained in their action, and the blood rushino
violently to the surface, and being prevented from returning with

166

freedom, the face and neck and arms are suffused with red. Some-
times too from this cause there is a very dark hvid colour in the
face.

It must further be observed, that in the face there is a pecuhar pro-
vision of nerves, which are entwined round the vessels, and give them
a susceptibility corresponding with the passions of the mind, which
the general surface does not possess. Hence the sudden blush, and
rapid change of colour upon slight emotions. To this greater
susceptibility of the head, as well as of the face, is to be attributed
the rising of the hair in almost every violent passion.

The skin itself deserves the attention of the artist, for it considerably
affects the character of the parts which it covers; the veins, the
bones, and the muscles. In a robust healthy child no veins are to
be seen; and for the same reason, the points of bone, and the
distinction of muscle and tendon are not perceived. In a child,
thou oh the surface is smooth and delicate, yet (as anatomists would
speak) the integuments are thick and strong; the fat lies chiefly on
the surface, and above those parts which in more mature age appear
prominent, and mark the character. The consequence of this is
apparent in the general form of children. They have their appro-
priate form and beauty ; but in reference to the more perfect state
of middle life, they are unformed, the head, joints, and limbs, and
even the hands and feet being round and unshapely. Such is
the appearance of children at the age at which they are commonly

167

drawn and modelled : when it seems just doubtful whether they
might not be more secure on a broader base than their feet.

Women, like children, have the skin smooth, but the Umbs round,
polished, and pyramidal. This proceeds from the muscles being less
powerful, and the bones less prominent than in man, and from the
fat being in great proportion and filling up all inequalities.
Time makes its assault on this fair proportion, first b}' overloading
and taking the symmetry from the limbs, and finally by diminish-
ing the fat, so that the skin closes nearer to the bones.

The breathing and the motion of the chest are connected with the
circulation of the blood and the general state of the system. The
blood is by a peculiar system of vessels made to circulate through the
lungs, that it may be exposed to the air inhaled in breathing, and
imbibe that vital principle which is necessary to all the phenomena
of life. The existence of the animal has a closer dependance upon
this operation, than even on alimentary nourishment. And to secure
a strict correspondence between the heart and the lungs in this
essential and vital action, nature has established the most intimate
s5'mpathies betwixt them. When with violent action, as already
observed, the motion of the heart becomes irregular, the lungs
sympathize ; the diaphragm and throat are affected ; the voice is
choked or tremulous, and there is a sense of tightness of the chest
and of suffocation.

168

The BONES and muscles form a chief object of study for the
artist. The bones support the soft parts, and protect the important
viscera : they give the form and height : they serve to distinguish
the pecuharities of age, and sex, and constitution, and of national
and family character. As without the support of the bones the
flesh would fall into a shapeless mass; as they are the levers on
which the muscles act, and without which they could not produce
the locomotion of the animal ; the proportions and the strength of
the body, the beauty of the form, the elegance and ease of the
motion, all depend upon the structure of the skeleton. The study
of it must therefore be of the last importance to the painter.

The muscles even still more than the bones should be studied.
They form the proper flesh of the body. They alone are capable
of contraction, in order to produce motion in the animal, and conse-
quently of variation of shape. An individual muscle consists of
these parts ; the proper muscle, or belly of the muscle, as it is called,
consists of bundles, or fasciculi, like lesser muscles connected tosre-
ther. When minutely examined these are seen to consist again of
smaller fibres, diminishing in size till the eye can no longer perceive
the threads. The fleshy and fibrous belly of the muscle is concen-
trated at each extremity into a dense and white tendon, which is
supposed to consist of the common membrane of the bod}'', strength-
ened to an amazing degree by this condensation. These tendons
are fixed into the bones. That tendon which is attached to the
fixed bone, is called the origin ; the other often heightened to a

169

long cord, runs down the limb, and is implanted into some moveable,
part, as the bones of the wrist or fingers. The muscles are of an
infinite variety of form, especially those upon the trunk of the
body. In the limbs they are more regular, and the force of the
muscle is concentrated in general into a very small tendon, which
often takes its course in a sheath or groove of the bone, so as to have
its force applied according to the direction of its course.

The bellies of the muscles form the thick brawny part of the
limb ; whilst the tendons allow of a finer form towards the joints.
Other muscles spread large upon the chest, or cover and invest the
joints, as those of the hip and shoulder, giving the robust form to
the trunk.

The power of contraction in the muscular fibres is called the
irritability of the muscle, the most distinguishing phenomenon of life.
This irritability is renewed, or supported by the influence of the
circulation ; while the nerves, distributed equally with the blood
vessels to the substance of the muscle, convey the influence of the
will, and cause the contraction of the muscle. As the incessant
transmission of blood is necessary to the usual and moderate action
of the muscles, so is their exercise and encreased action attended
with an acceleration of the blood, and a prominent increase of
their vascularity. They assume a darker red, and become more
massy and prominent.

170

The rigidity which appears in the action of the muscles is not
apparent only, but real. A muscle in death has but a weak cohesion
and is easily torn ; but during life and full contraction, it is almost
impossible to tear the muscle, so strong is the attraction of the mus-
cular fibre.

In violent action a muscle, it is said, has less sensibility; and by
exerting their muscles powerfully, jugglers suffer pins to be thrust
into their flesh ; but I believe the fact to be, that the muscle is little
sensible compared with the skin. It is certain, however, that in con-
traction the muscles will suffer blows and pressure without injury.
And thus we can explain the feat sometimes performed of breaking a
poker over the arm, by Avhich, without a strong action and prepara-
tion of the muscles, the arm bone would probably be fractured, and the
flesh bruised. A more extraordinary instance of the resisting power
in the muscles, during their contraction, was exhibited some years ago
in the streets of London, by a fellow who went by the name of
Leather Coat Jack. For a pot of porter he would lie down in the
street, and allow a carriage to pass over him. Jack having died,
was dissected in the theatre of Dr. W. Hunter, and the appearance of
muscular strength was extraordinary both in the form of the muscles,
and in the remarkable processes of the bones into which they were
inserted. It could not be the strength of bone which saved him
from being bruised in these exhibitions. I conceive the explanation
to be this; that being a man of great muscular strength, the power

171

of habit enabled him to give such exertion to the muscles as not only
to defend the bones from being broken, but to save the muscles
themselves from being bruised by a weight, which, in a state of re-
laxation, would have crushed them to a jelly. We have all ex-
perienced the difference between a blow received unexpectedly,
and one received when on our guard. Even on the same place
of the body the effect will be very different. Boxers receive the
hardest blows Avithout injury. In consequence of the state of
preparation in which they hold themselves when about to receive
a blow, and the habit of sudden and powerful exertion of the
muscles, the opponent's fist is repelled as from a board.

Although nature should bestow the essential requisites of manly
beauty, yet without habitual and general exercise the form will be
impaired. The variety of bodily exercises to which the youth of
Greece and Rome were inured, must have been a chief cause of
their superiority in form. How the handicraft trades disfigure the
body, and distort it from its fair proportions, every one must
have observed. Persons in that condition are distinguished by
an aukward gait, and habits and postures remote fi-om nature or
elegance.

In one of our most celebrated public dancere we see the power of
exercise in giving an elegant and vigorous character to the thigh and
leg, while the arms seem to me disproportionately Aveak, injuring
the effect of the whole figure. I have somewhere seen it remarked,
that the over exercise of one part draws the nourishment from the

172

others; but in these instances there is not an actual diminution of the
unexercised limbs, but only a comparative feebleness when contrasted
with those limbs, which, being in continual action, have acquired a
more vigorous circulation and actual increase of muscular strength.
As the limbs increase in power and action, their motion becomes
more expressive from the play of the muscles being more appa-
rent.

Violence of gesticulation is indelicate, if not unnatural, in females,
and detracts from their beauty. This strikes us strongly in the necks
and limbs of opera dancers. That which is beauty in a young man,
is deformity in a female. The nymph-like lightness* of a female
dancer, which so much charms the eye at a distance, loses much of
its grace and beauty, when, the figure advancing, the movements are
perceived to be accomplished with violent straining and muscular
action. This soon must destroy the natural beauty and symmetry
peculiar to the female form.

Rubens, in his theory of the human figure, makes the cube or square
the element, as he calls it, of the manly form of the hero and athletic f.

* Milton never loses sight of this feminine lightness and elegance in his descrip-
tion of Eve; he paints her

" Like a wood-nymph light.
Oread or Dryad, or of Delia's train."

f Proceeding on the words of Quinctdian : Ex cubo, sive figura ab omni latere
quadrata, fit omne niasculum aut virile, et quicquid grave, forte, robustum, com-
pactum, et athleticum est: et quicquid formae quadrati detraxeris, amplitudini quoque
peribet. Quinct. Lib. L c. 10.

173

The fact must, I think, be acknowledged, that in the general form, in
the outline of the particular parts, and in the usual and natural atti-
tudes of a strong man, there is a certain squareness and abruptness;
that the outline is not flowing, but interrupted by the prominent
processes of the bones, the distinction of muscle and tendon, and the
crossing of the veins. This character is particularly evident when
he is in powerful exertion * ; for though during perfect rest and
quietude there prevails a softer outline, with a more uniform sweep
of the whole figure, in the instant of alarm and exertion the body and
hmbs become more squared and angular in their position, and the
outline more rugged and abrupt.

In woman, on the other hand, the prevailing outline is soft and un-
dulating. In the entire figure, in the form of the parts, in the attitude
and expression, there is nothing irregular, harsh, or abrupt. Rubens
says (with Plato and Cicero f) that the circle prevails in the form

* Le cube ct le qnarre s^ont, comme on 1' a deja dit, les clcmens piiinitifs de tout
ce qui a de 1' ctendue da'.is le corps liumain. Le triangle et la pyramide y president,
depuis les epaules jusqu' a la plante des pieds, ainsi qu' on 1' a remarqu6 ci-devant,
en parlant de la proportion el^mentaire. On voit en effet que, dans la figure humanie,
toutes les parties superieures sont plus amples et plus largcs, et qu'elles finissent en
diminuant vers les extrSmites. Ainsi la forme pyramidale dominc dans la figure de V
homme; et la cubique dans ses mouvemens ; car ce n'est pas le meme pnncipe qui

preside a ses actions et aux formes de sa figure.

Theorie de la Figure humatne.

t Ex circulo, sive globe perfecto, fit omne foemineum ac muliebre, et quidquid
sarnosum, torosum, flexum, tortum, curvatum, et incurvum est. Hac formam uUuin

neo-at esse pulchriorem Plato.
° Cicero de Natura Deorom.

174

of woman, I should rather say, that in the feminine form the gentle
curve prevails, the undulating line, the easy and insensible swell:
and that if these mathematical figures are to be resorted to, I should
assign the circle to the form of childhood, for in children there is a
general fullness, and prominence, and roundness, not only of the
head and joints from the structure of the bones, but in the breast,
belly, arms, and thighs.

But to return to the subject of the muscles : as in mechanics,
velocit}^ and weight are equivalent, so the human body may
be characterized either by such a form as indicates activity, velocity,
and vigorous exertion, or by a huge bulk, incumbered as it were
with its own strength, and indicating a body slow of motion, but of
which the arm Avould fall heavy and decisive. A young warrior,
whose arms are the buckler and sword, should be drawn according
to the first of these conceptions. Such for example is the fighting
Gladiator, dexterous to avoid his adversary's blow, and with quick
resiliency and rapid turns regaining his firm footing to return the
stroke.

Hie ictum venientem a vertice velox

Pr8evidLt,celerique elapsus corpore cessit.

iENEID. V. 444.

Thus we are led in sketches to adapt the kind of arms to
the proportions of the body and the degree and kind of strength.
When the poet describes the power of a giant, or a cyclops.

175

(" monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens") the painter pourtrays a
clumsy strength and unwieldy bulk « with the might of gravitation
blest," or at least devoid of the energy and activity of the youthful
warrior. Such, according to Rubens, are, among the remains of
antiquity, the River Gods, and Commodus in the character of
Hercules.

The character of the two species of strength is well exemplitied in
Dares and Entellus.

Ille pedum melior motu, fretusque juventa ;
Hie membris et mole valens : sed tarda tremcnti
Genua labant: vastos quatitseger anhelitus artus,

jEneid, V. 430.

Or again :

Entellus vires in ventum effudit : et ultro

Ipse gravis, graviterque ad terram pondere vasto

Concidit.

The ideal form of Hercules is the personification of the highest
degree of power with every possible or consistent mark of activity.
The form of Hercules is not directly taken from natural appearance,
but as if by inference and upon theory. The head and limbs are
small; the neck, trunk, and shoulders, preternaturally large and
strong; the muscles moving the limbs are powerful; the parts
moved light. But the idea of power is not more impressed upon u^

176

by the general form, than by the appearance of the individual
muscles. They have a sharpness and prominence which could be
acquired only by exercise and continual exertion. Indolence and
inactivity are remote from the idea suggested by the contemplation
of the Farnese Hercules.

The painter must imitate the elevation of language by which the
poet prepares the mind. In historical or poetical painting there
must be nothing vulgar in the proportions, or gait, or attitude of his
figures, else he will fail to produce that elevation of sentiment which
is a necessary prelude to all feeling of interest in the otherwise
improbable fictions of antiquity. A form must be delineated with
which we associate powerful energy of mind, as well as of body,
and in this the painter must well examine the extent of his own
powers, as lie is, equally with the poet, liable to run into bombast
and extravagance.

The approach of old age gives another distinction of muscular ex-
ertion. In the Laocoon, for example, we have a muscular figure, and
much anatomical expression, but it is the powerful exertion of a man
advanced in life, whose functions as a priest give no presumption of
the acquisition of great bodily power. It bears no relation to either
of the characteristic forms of human strength.

'O^

In the following passage, in which Pliny describes his favourite
statue, the marks of old age are very correct :

177

" Effingit senem stantem ; ossa, musculi, nervi, venae, ruga? etiam
ut spirantis apparent : rari et cedentes capilli, lata frons, contracta
facies, exile collum; pendent lacerti, papillae jacent, recessit venter.
A tergo quoque eadem «tas, ut a tergo, aesipsum quantum verus
color indicat vetus et antiquum. Talia denique omnia ut possint
artificum oculos tenere, delectare imperitorum."

The study of character and expression, as exhibited in the body
and limbs, is perhaps more difficult than that of the traits of the
passions as exhibited in the countenance. The sublime effects
produced in the marble, by the expression of the form and attitude
alone, strongly prove the superiority of this corporeal expression.

Corporeal expressionhas a wide range, from the graceful inclination
of the head and neck of the Apollo, to the convulsive struggle of the
Laocoon. This is the operation of the mind on the body. To
bestow grace and propriety of action on the figure, pre-supposes a
deep knowledge of the workings of passion; while the difficulty of
execution, however justly the idea may be conceived, makes this
the highest department of the art of painting.

The study of the action of the figure admits of a natural division ;
first, of motion and exertion simply; and secondly, of the effects of
sentiment and passion. The knowledge of the fonuer is necessary in
order to paint the figure with correctness ; to poise it on the centre ;
to bestow just attitude ; and truly to express the exertion of the limbs

A A

178

in loco-raotion, and the common exercise of the body. The second
belongs more to the province of genius — with invention and deep
observation of human character, must be combined judgment and
correct taste, in order to make the mind apparent in the body (" in
corpore vultus"), and to preserve the peculiarity of character, and all
the grace and propriety of action *.

It is this emanation of the mind inspiring the features, and giving
grace to the action which produces the enchanting effect in painting.
And if there be such a thing as pleasure arising fi-om mere form
without exjiression and character, which I much doubt, it is a
pleasure which must be very transient. In every possible condition
and state of existence there is a certain character to be given to the
body. It is ahve or dead; still or in motion; it has the spirit and

* There cannot be a better illustration how much a creative genius, both in
painting and poetry, is required to produce this effect of mind on the body, than to
contemplate the idea excited by the following description :

After the Duke his father with the knife, —
He stretched him, and with one hand on's dagger,
ylnother spread on's breast, viounting his eyes,
He did discharge a horrible oath, whose tenor
Was, were he evil-us'd, he would out go
His father by so much as a performance
Does an irresolute act.

King Henry VIII.

We hare here the picture of the mind wound up to deliberate denouncing of

179

buoyant spring of youth, the massiness of manly strength, the
grace and elegance of female beauty, or the cautious timidity and
constrained motions and postures of old age, legibly impressed on the
whole figure, and prescribing every motion and position of the body.
In the dignity which becomes the higher strains of composition, the
movements and expressions of the body are expressive, but dig-
nified ; in the lower scenes of farce and caricature the peculiar
habits, and motions, and postures of familiar life and mechanical
occupation are as distinct and legible, and the neglect of these appro-
priate signs are great defects in an artist*. In this difficult study
the painter must have recourse to nature, that he may have her
habits and genuine language -j-; rules and descriptions can do little
for him. Further than in the mere correctness of drawing, this subject
has no intimate reference to anatomy, and therefore I shall not
enter at large into this extensive enquiry, but confine myself to a
few hints concerning beauty as depending on expression, and con-
cerning the distinction between the form and position of the body
in sleep and in death.

I would premise however, with regard to position in general, that
considered independently of any particular expression, the figure

* It is one of the things told of the famous Prince of Conde, that he was very expert
in this sort of physiognomy, and would sometimes lay wagers with his friends, that
he would guess, upon the Pont Ncuf, what trade persons were of that passed by, from
their walk and air.

t See Mr. Fuseli's third Lecture.

180

will not stand elegantly, unless it is made to rest more on one leg
than on the other — first, because it is natural; and, secondly,
because the body in this posture assumes a more varied and elegant
outline. It is a natural posture, because, however strange at first
sight it may appear, the body is not at rest when it stands equally
on both legs ; to keep it so there must be an unpleasant tension of
the muscles of the body and limbs. When the body rests on one foot,
and the trunk is poised so as to relieve the muscles of the other side,
and throw the other foot unconstrained, the line of beauty into
which the figure falls is elegant and agreeable ; perhaps because it
conveys to the mind an idea of a natural and unconstrained position,
as well as from the pleasing contrast of the limbs*.

* Certain positions of the body and limbs, I have been accustomed to say to my
pupils, when the academy figure stood before us, we universally acknowledge to be
elegant ; let us inquire if all these attitudes be not natural ones, and if they do not
result from the structure of the limbs.

The man stands with both feet firm to the ground, and we see that there is a
certain tension and squareness over the whole body ; but in this position there is no
muscle at rest ; it is not a position of ease ; we know that there is a restraint upon
the whole body, and that the bones are universally braced by the action of the
muscles. Observe, then, how he seeks relief; he throws the weight of the body on
one leg, the other has a position of ease and relaxation ; the effect of this is a varied
outline through the whole figure : all the limbs are in contrast ; and the muscles,
which on one side are relaxed, on the other side are in action. Our minds are
satisfied that this is a position of ease, and perfectly natural ; we feel it to be elegant;
and it only remains for you to determine whether this elegance results from the con-
trast of the limbs, or from a conviction that it is a position of rest and ease ; or, in
other words, of its being natural.

181

In the posture of the body and limbs, in the inclination of the
head and neck, that is, in the whole attitude of the figure, the
elevation or depression of the mind is indicated. The elevation of
thought is pourtrayed in dignity of demeanour, as mildness and
amenity, pride and insolence, suspicion and fear, are displayed m
corresponding expressions of the body. These ideas of mind enter
unconsciously into all our conceptions of the beauty of form, as well
as of the propriety and correctness of action. From the philosopher
to the peasant, no idea can be formed of life unconnected with
motion; and the forms of man and of other animals have, in our
judgments, a secret relation to their capacity for motion; nay
further, our conceptions of the human figure are never unconnected
with the conviction of superior intelligence ; and the idea of motion
and of expression is inseparably combined with the idea of the form
of man.

Beauty is consistent with an infinite variety of forms ; and this
alone appears sufficient to convince us that its cause and origin is to
be found in some quality capable of varying and accommodating itself,
which can attach to different forms, and still operate through every
change. This quality I conceive to be expression ; and although
it may be said that beauty is chiefly excellent where there is observed
no character of passion; yet in these cases the form we admire is
calculated for expression, and has in our secret thoughts a relation to
the qualities of mind. The lover sees in the features which he doats

182

upon, a tenderness of sentiment ; he imagines delicate attractions, en-
gaging endearments, and all the blandishments and lovely qualities
of mind which the fondest fancy can conceive. When we discover
that all the qualities which we have attributed to the object of our
admiration are deceitful illusions, and that the susceptibility of mind
which we had imagined to be reflected in the face, and indicated in
the graceful movements of the body, has no existence, love and
admiration rapidly subside ; and if we are still forced to acknow-
ledge the beauty of the features, they affect us as the beauty of a
statue which has a certain relation and association with the feelings
which have grown up from our more general experience.

In a child the bloom and freshness, the smooth and rounded form,
and even the limited power of expression, accord in our conception
with the naivete and ingenuous simplicity of mind. In a girl
Ave associate with the form a gentleness and elegant simplicity in
every motion. The beauty we admire is the capacity for that
expression ; and the view of the expression itself conveys to our
minds the idea of the more amiable and feminine sentiments.

Why do we so much admire the beauty of the Antinous?
Because, although there is no gesticulation, there is still no want of
expression; on the contrary, there is a voluptuous languor which
seems to pervade the whole figure, and which is in strict unison
with the sensation the artist wished to communicate. If we

183

compare this figure with the repose of Hercules, we shall recognize
in it the enervating effect of pleasure, instead of lassitude after labour.

We assimilate beauty with the form of that age and sex in
which the mind is most susceptible of pleasure; for nature has
there established powers of expression adapted to the prevailing
character of the mhid ; but the perfection of manhood is when
the form is matured, though it has become more rugged and full of
character, and when the higher passions and sentiments prevail.
The form no longer corresponds with that voluptuous expression and
languor, the concomitant of pleasure, and in the air and carriage
there is more of dignity than of grace.

In Sleep* there is, perhaps, an appropriate attitude; but every
limb is at rest ; and such an attitude as indicates entire repose and
relaxation is the natural characteristic of sleep. When a fine lady
throws herself upon the sofa in elegant relaxation, she can preserve
while awake the grace of her attitude ; but when sleep actually
visits her, the wrist falls loose, the arms gravitate into an easy half-
bended position, the legs are drawn up, and nature overcomes
affectation. The cause is this: when the Umbs are stretched, the
extending muscles are in contraction, and the bending muscles
drawn out ; it is not therefore a position of ease and perfect relaxa-
tion. If intention, or habit, does not prevent the natural equipoise

* Dulcis et alta quies placidseque simillima morti. ^neid. V. 522.

184

of muscular contraction, the joints will in sleep be relaxed, and the
limbs nearly half-bent. Perhaps another cause may be assigned for
the posture of very sound repose. As the exhaustion of muscular
power, in consequence of exercise, leads to an increase of the
velocity of the circulation, in order to supply the wants of the system,
and as the action of the arteries and veins is least interrupted while
the limbs are stretched, we should expect that an animal exhausted
by exercise should take a posture different from that of which we
have been speaking. On the contrary, as the full torrent of the
circulation is not requisite for the little waste of muscular power after
rest, it is natural that, when the system is a little recruited, there
should be a kind of check and interruption to the velocity of the
circulation in the bending of the limbs. Observe a dog returned
fi'om the chase : he tumbles down quite resolved and stretched out
upon his side ; he slumbers for a little; but when he has somewhat
recovered himself, he draws up his legs, coils himself into a circle,
and falls into sound sleep. So hibernating animals, Avhen found in
their cells, are coiled up and pressed together. Such also is the
position of the child in the womb.

However unsatisfactory these reasons may be, observation will
convince us that there is rather a drawing together of the body and
limbs in deep sleep, unless where mere gravitation stretches the legs,
.or where the posture of the sleeper prevents it.

In sleep, the features are full though relaxed, not shrunk as in
death; and the expression of dewy temples, and dewy sleep, suffi-

185

ciently indicates that full and regular state of the cri'culation, which
gives to the features a form and colour quite the reverse of
death.

In Death, the body is heavier; that is, the position of the limbs is
more under the influence of mere gravitation, and the solid manner
in which they lie, conveys that idea. Rubens has given some very
rude sketches, to show that the elemental form of death is the straidit
line. The first effect of death is relaxation, but the second effect is
stiffness and rigidity. Now it is this rigidity which insensibl}^
makes part of our prevailing idea of the characteristic form; and if
the body be then moved, this rigidity produces the effect, which
Rubens has had impressed upon his mind, of the prevalence of
the straight line.

But independently of this straightness and rigidity, there is a dis-
tinction between sleep and death, m posture as well as in colour and
feature. In sleep there is a certain regard to convenience, and a
uniform and gentle curve or flexure of the limbs; while in death
there is entire reference in the position to the ground on which the
bodv is laid. The character is most distinctly marked therefore by
the position of the head and neck.

-lentaque colla

Et captum letho posuit caput arnia relinquens.

.^NEID. XI. 830.

B B

186

Much of the character of death, as contrasted with sleep, is in the
colour. The blood having left the surface, the skin shrinks, the
features are sharp, and the blood dissolving, gives faint tinges through
the gradation of black, blue, lake, faint yellow, and green. The
general character however is ashy paleness.

THE END.

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